Exploring the Word of God
Books of Poetry: Job Through Song of Songs
By Tim Finlay and Jim Herst
Copyright 2013 Grace Communion International
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Table of Contents 
The Trial of Job
Exploring Psalms
The Key to Biblical Poetry
Types of Psalms
Types of Psalms — Part 2
Psalms Can Help You Pray
The Lord Is My Shepherd
Psalms: Thematic Collections
Psalms in the New Testament
Exploring Proverbs
Proverbs: Words of Wisdom
The Numbers Game
Exploring Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes: The Voice of Experience
The Limits of Wisdom
Exploring the Song of Songs
Song of Songs: A Lover’s Paradise
About the Authors
About the Publisher
Grace Communion Seminary
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The Trial of Job
By Paul Kroll
Have you experienced pain and suffering? 
Then you have shared Job’s anguish and perhaps his wonderment. 
Like Job, you also may find God much closer than you thought.
The book of Job in the Bible is the story of a devout man who lived thousands of years ago. But tragedy hovers over this righteous man. When the book opens, we notice Job is about to lose everything — children, property and wealth, good name and even his health.
Why will Job suffer such tragedies? Because God is about to challenge the devil with Job’s obedience and faith.
The big dare
The introduction to the book of Job tells us the background of God’s challenge and Job’s suffering. Scene I invites us behind the curtain to the universe-ruling throne of God. In this drama, angelic beings are delivering reports on their activities. Satan is among them. The Evil One has been roaming the earth, surveying his domain (Job 1:6-7; 1 John 5:19; Revelation 12:9).
Job’s troubles begin after God presents him to Satan as shining example of virtue. “Have you considered my servant Job?” God asks Satan. “There is no one on earth like him; he is blameless and upright, a man who fears God and shuns evil” (Job 1:8).
God will soon allow Satan to afflict Job, but God is not punishing Job for sin. God himself says Job is “blameless and upright.” Job suffers because he is among the best, not because he is the worst.
Satan rejects God’s view of Job’s good character. He implies that Job has a selfish motive, a cynical reason for obeying and trusting God (verses 9-22). “Does Job fear God for nothing?” Satan asks. Satan insinuates that Job is simply out for what he can get from God. Job is only a fair-weather friend, Satan insists. “Have you not put a hedge around him and his household and everything he has?” Satan argues. “You have blessed the work of his hands, so that his flocks and herds are spread throughout the land.”
Satan’s challenge
Satan sneers at the good example. Job doesn’t love you, Satan implies. Take away Job’s many blessings and you’ll find that he’s no friend of yours. Satan tries to make a bet with God. “Stretch out your hand and strike everything he has,” Satan dares God, “and he will surely curse you to your face.”
Really? Does Job love God only for selfish reasons? Do we? “Well — let’s see,” is God’s reply. He tells Satan, “Everything he has is in your hands, but on the man himself do not lay a finger.”
With God’s permission, Satan grabs a handful of dirty tricks from his bag of suffering. He flings them at Job, and the world caves in on this innocent man. Job’s herds and property are either carried off by raiders or destroyed by natural disasters.
But Satan is proven wrong. After these terrible tragedies strike Job, he tears his robe and shaves his head. He falls to the ground in worship, saying, “The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away; may the name of the Lord be praised.” The author of the book of Job is careful to point out, “In all this, Job did not sin by charging God with wrongdoing.”
The second dare
Time elapses. One day, another angelic report takes place in heaven. God reaffirms to Satan his contention that Job truly loves God and his ways (Job 2:1-7). Satan again scoffs at Job’s faith in God. “A man will give all he has for his own life,” jibes Satan. “But stretch out your hand and strike his flesh and bones, and he will surely curse you to your face.”
God again expresses confidence in Job. “Well, then, he is in your hands; but you must spare his life.”
The devil immediately strikes poor Job with horrible sores over his entire body. The fall of the house of Job is complete. It appears he has become — without his knowledge or permission — the guinea pig in one of history’s greatest tests.
Job is now on trial. He must answer a vital question. How will he, who had faithfully trusted God for help and protection, react to suffering that seems senseless and unjust? Will righteous Job reject God, or maintain his faith?
So far, Satan has lost every round. He has been proven wrong about Job’s faithful relationship with God. But can Job endure? Will he continue to trust in God as the seemingly endless suffering rolls on, with only pain and death in sight? Will Job persevere even though God seems to have forsaken him? That is the issue at stake.
Job can be seen as a metaphor of the suffering believer. How Job reacts to God’s test says something about how we should react to trials. The book asks us to consider our faith. Would we continue to trust God, to love God with all our heart, soul and mind (Matthew 22:37-38) — even while suffering for reasons we don’t understand?

On the ash heap
Scene 2 of this great drama takes place on an ash heap in the land of Uz, here on earth (Job 2:8). Job is suffering pain and anxiety. He is emotionally alone, tormented, confused, angry. His three friends who came to comfort him are instead emotionally and verbally persecuting him.
The human actors in the drama do not know that God is deeply involved in Job’s life at this precise moment. They have no understanding of what God is trying to accomplish nor why Job is suffering so terribly. Nor do they grasp that a cosmic issue is at stake.
Job himself does not understand why this evil is happening to someone who has faith in God. Why has a good God allowed such terrible things to happen to a decent, God-fearing human being? Job, in short, is asking, “Why me, Lord?”
On the ash heap, the issues are very human, confused and not completely understood. The principal human characters all have incomplete and distorted knowledge. They make partial or even incorrect judgments about God’s activities. Or they misapply general observations to Job’s specific situation.
The introduction has given us a sneak preview of the heavenly perspective on Job. We know God is much pleased with and concerned about him. No matter that God has temporarily suspended Job’s protected condition. There is a reason.
Job is not a victim of time and chance, but a part of God’s orchestrated purpose. Job has no inkling he is the star actor in a God-directed morality play on earth. As far as Job knows, God has disappeared from his life.
Job’s primal scream
Job desperately tries to solve the mystery behind his suffering. He struggles on his own, looking for clues. None appear. Job prays expectantly. God will surely speedily intervene in his life — heal him of his disease, explain to him what in the world is going on. But nothing happens. The horribly painful disease reduces Job’s strength. He grows weaker and weaker. He becomes more confused.
Job’s language sometimes borders on the irrational and incoherent. At times he appears almost delirious. Opposing attitudes clash in his speeches. Job appeals to God to act before it is too late. At times he even challenges God. Please help me, he cries. Come to me quickly. “I will soon lie down in the dust,” Job cries out, “you will search for me, but I will be no more” (Job 7:21).
Through his agony Job becomes increasingly confused, perplexed, discouraged, without hope. In his worst nightmare, Job sees death coming around the corner of his life, ready to run him down. Job knows he is finished — through. He sees himself doomed to die a broken, lonely, hated and despised person. Job’s hopelessness is painted throughout the book. In one place he moans, “My spirit is broken, my days are cut short, the grave awaits me” (Job 17:1).
Even though Job has done nothing wrong and pleads desperately for help, God still chooses to stay hidden. “I cry out to you, O God, but you do not answer,” Job wails (Job 30:20). Job’s tragic circumstances challenge and contradict everything he has always believed about God as a rewarder of the good. Life has gone crazy for Job, and he has been locked up in the padded cell of his own mind.
Wrestling with God
Job can only assume God is persecuting him, hiding from him. He lashes out at God in pain and anguish. “If I have sinned, what have I done to you, O watcher of men? Why have you made me your target?” Job complains (Job 7:20).
We should not mistake Job’s terrible discouragement, his lashing out at God, for disbelief. God’s existence is not in question. Job knows that somewhere in the universe God must be alive. “Though he slay me, yet will I hope in him,” Job cries out in despairing belief (Job 13:15). Still trusting in God as his Advocate, Job insists, “I know that my Redeemer lives” (Job 19:25).
Meanwhile, Job’s friends are shocked at his outbursts. Surely, the comforters think, the fire of God is about to burn up this man. They are afraid to admit that no cause-and-effect reason exists for Job’s painful trial. That would imply they live in a senseless world. How could God be just and strike Job unjustly?
Blame the victim
Their answer? Job obviously must have sinned terribly against God. Yes, that’s it — Job’s sins are the cause of his suffering. God is off the hook. The friends put forth the old “if you are suffering you must be sinning” answer to suffering. It is blame-the-victim time. Although at first they came to console Job, they end up attacking him as a hideous sinner.
Eliphaz accuses: “Is not your wickedness great? Are not your sins endless?” (Job 22:5). He and the other two friends completely misread Job’s spiritual condition and God’s purpose. They, too, try to find the perpetrator of the crime — the cause of Job’s terrible suffering. But they accuse the wrong person — innocent Job.
Part of what the friends say about the relationship of sin and cursing, virtue and reward is true. Sin does have consequences — we do reap what we sow (Psalm 1; Galatians 6:7). But Job’s friends misapply their remarks in Job’s case. They take a general principle and nail it to a specific person — Job — and the specific trial he is undergoing. They will soon be shocked to discover how wrong they are (Job 42:7-8). Sometimes people suffer from the sins of others.
On the ash heap, all the drama’s actors, Job especially, have been asking questions of God and imputing motives to him. Job has already prosecuted God. The friends have been, let us say, mistaken witnesses against Job.
From the storm
Throughout the dialogues between Job and his friends, Job especially had claimed vast knowledge of the way things work — or should work — in this world. Job said of a hoped-for encounter with God, “I have prepared my case, I know I will be vindicated” (Job 13:18).
In scene 3, God storms into Job’s presence. Now, it’s my turn, he says. I will cross-examine you. Out of the raging storm, God begins to challenge Job’s claim to understanding: “Who is this that darkens my counsel with words without knowledge?” (Job 38:2). Who is ignorantly accusing me of doing wrong?
From the whirlwind, God demands of Job, “Will the one who contends with the Almighty correct him?” (Job 40:2). God tells Job he doesn’t know what he’s talking about when he questions God’s fairness. He isn’t going to answer any of Job’s “Why?” questions. God has come to cross-examine. “I will question you, and you shall answer me,” he tells Job twice (Job 38:3; 40:7).
How does God answer Job? He sidesteps every question Job had. Instead, God gives Job a wilderness appreciation tour, recounting the majesties of nature from hail to horses (Job 38:22; 39:19). Is this relevant? Indeed, it is.
God’s point to Job, Philip Yancey wrote in Disappointment With God, is this: “Until you know a little more about running the physical universe, Job, don’t tell me how to run the moral universe.”
Aaagh! How stupid I was, thinks Job. He smacks his brow and puts his hand to his mouth. Job finally understands the error of his hasty conclusion (Job 40:4). He grasps that his position is built on ignorance. He realizes God is quite capable of running the universe correctly.
A bigger God
Job now knows that whatever has happened to him — in some way he can’t fully understand — will work out for his benefit, for everyone’s benefit (see Romans 8:28). Job can say to God, “I know that you can do all things; no plan of yours can be thwarted” (Job 42:2).
Job is now convinced of God’s infinite wisdom in dealing with him as he sees fit. Job now knows there is a purpose for his suffering — God’s purpose. That is quite enough for him. The mighty voice of God thundering out of the whirlwind puts everything into perspective for Job. It says: God is alive; God is here; God cares; God is capable.
Job has been given an answer, not the one he expected, but one much more important. It does not matter that he was not given a chance to present his own case. When God appears, Job’s questions melt away precisely because God has now revealed himself.
Surprisingly, God does not condemn Job for railing against him and accusing him. God only corrects Job’s misconception about his ability to rule the creation. God does reprimand Job because Job condemned him for injustice. Out of the storm, God batters Job with these questions: “Would you discredit my justice? Would you condemn me to justify yourself?” (Job 40:8). But God does not accuse Job of sin. God neither calls him self-righteous nor a blasphemer.
God won’t condemn
Does this mean that we might also dare express our frustration, our anger — even call God to account in our ignorance and confusion — without being condemned by God? Shocking though it may be — yes, we can. In Yancey’s words: “One bold message in the Book of Job is that you can say anything to God. Throw at him your grief, your anger, your doubt, your bitterness, your betrayal, your disappointment — he can absorb them all.” God is much bigger than we are.
Job also recognizes how big and how great God is. After hearing God’s argument, Job says, “I despise myself and repent in dust and ashes” (Job 42:6). But repent of what? Of some specific sin? Not quite. Job explains, “Surely I spoke of things I did not understand, things too wonderful for me to know” (verse 3).
It wasn’t that Job had to overcome a specific sin, but rather that he had to grow in understanding. Job had been too hasty in concluding God was unjust or unable to rule in the right way.
Job now had a deeper, clearer perception of his Creator. But this new awareness was only a by-product of the real purpose of Job’s suffering — the testing of his faith and love. In this case, God needed to know something about Job, and Job needed to know something about himself and about God.
The why of suffering
The book of Job teaches us that suffering may occur for reasons that we don’t understand unless or until God reveals them to us (see John 9:1-7, for example). Trials may come because God needs to know something about a faithful servant (Genesis 22:1-12). Job’s suffering had such an intent — to prove whether he would love God in spite of everything.
This message of Job has deep implications for our relationship with God. Trials and suffering provide spiritual enrichment and build a relationship between us and God (2 Corinthians 12:7-10; Hebrews 12:4-12; James 1:2-4; 1 Peter 4:12-19).
Job also tells us no ironclad relationship exists between suffering and sin. Just because Christians suffer trials or tragedies does not mean God is punishing them for some sin.
The book of Job is about much more than suffering or God’s justice. Job affirmed that God was still God — no matter what — and always worthy of our love, reverence and worship. That was the test on Job, and he passed it. He vindicated both himself and God by remaining faithful. Job proved it is possible for humans to love God unconditionally.
Suffering had been an expansive, faith-demonstrating opportunity for Job. God had grown much bigger; Job had become smaller in his own eyes.
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Exploring Psalms

David plays the kinnor, or lyre. This is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called a harp (1 Samuel 16:23) and was the favorite instrument of the Hebrews. It was played mainly in worship services, but also at banquets and celebrations for government occasions (1 Samuel 10:5). It was not played during times of national calamity (Isaiah 14:11).
What’s in a name?
The name Psalms is derived from the Greek title for the book, Psalmoi. Psalmoi is the plural of psalmos, the Greek translation of the Hebrew word mizmor, meaning “song.”
The Hebrew title for the book is tehillim, the plural of tehillah, meaning “song of praise.” Although only Psalm 145 is specifically designated as a tehillah in the Hebrew Bible, the entire book of Psalms is a collection of psalms in praise to God.
Outline
Although there is no story flow from one psalm to the next, many of the psalms are gathered into collections: Psalms 3 – 41, 51 – 72, 108 – 110 and 138 – 145 are collections of psalms of David; Psalms 42 – 49, 84, 85, 87 and 88 are psalms of the Sons of Korah; Psalms 50 and 73 – 83 are psalms of Asaph; and Psalms 120 – 134 are called Songs of Ascents.
There is also a collection of collections, known as the “Elohistic Psalter” (Psalms 42 – 83). In the Elohistic Psalter, God is usually referred to as ‘Elohim, whereas God is normally called Yahweh in the other psalms. When the same psalm has been included in two collections (such as Psalm 14 and 53 or Psalm 40:13-17 and 70), the version in the Elohistic Psalter will often use ‘Elohim instead of Yahweh. This can be seen in most English Bibles, since they usually translate ‘Elohim as “God” and Yahweh as “Lord.” For example, compare Psalm 14:7 with the parallel verse, Psalm 53:6; or Psalm 40:16 with its parallel, Psalm 70:4.
In the Hebrew Bible, as it was finally canonized, the book of Psalms is divided into five smaller books to correspond in number with the books of the law.
Book 1: Psalms 1–41
Book 2: Psalms 42–72
Book 3: Psalms 73–89
Book 4: Psalms 90–106
Book 5: Psalms 107–150
The last psalm in each of the first four books has a concluding doxology (an expression of praise repeated by the congregation during worship services), such as “Praise be to the Lord, the God of Israel, from everlasting to everlasting. Amen and Amen” (41:13; see also 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). All of Psalm 150 forms a doxology for all five books of the Psalms, just as Psalms 1 and 2 form an extended introduction.
How to read this book
The Bible is God’s revelation to humanity. Within the Bible, God has chosen to reveal different aspects of his nature in a variety of ways — such as through law, history, proverbs and prophecy. The Psalms are part of God’s revelation through poetry: 
“The Psalms as a whole address the relationship between Israel (individually and collectively) and God. And yet by its very nature the relationship with God is not easily expressed within the limitations of human speech. Poetry (rather than prose) is used in the Psalms, for it is a form of human language that seeks to transcend the limitations inherent in prosaic [nonpoetic] speech and to give expression to that which is ultimately inexpressible” (N.H. Ridderbos and P.C. Craigie, “Psalms,” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 3, p. 1037).
We should not read the Psalms like a textbook. The Psalms express truth through the use of metaphors and figures of speech. We need to be sensitive to the use of poetic imagery. Etienne Charpentier writes: 
“In scientific language, which seeks to convey information, the words say exactly what they signify. In the language of relationships they seek to convey something else: the lover who addresses ‘her pet’ or ‘his angel’ is not expressing a situation but a kind of relationship, like the psalmist who calls his God ‘my rock, my fortress.’ This distinction between two kinds of language is important when we are using the psalms in prayer, and even more generally, when we are reading the Bible. In fact, the word of God is always expressed in the language of relationships and not that of conveying information. Granted, the Bible is concerned to teach us certain things, but above all it seeks to enable us to enter into a personal relationship with God” (How to Read the Old Testament, p. 94).
Learning about God
* God is the Supreme Ruler. James Luther Mays comments on the centrality of God’s rulership in the Psalms: 
“The integrity of psalmic speech in all its forms, praise, prayer, and instruction depends on the proclamation, ‘The Lord reigns.’... In the social sphere, the Lord reigns in justice and righteousness as the power that opposes the disorder of violence, deceit, and greed and draws human beings toward an order of motive and action that makes for shalom [peace]” (“The Language of the Reign of God,” Interpretation, April 1993, p. 121).
* Jesus is the Righteous Sufferer. The Psalms also prefigure the Messiah, Jesus Christ, in his role as righteous sufferer. The most poignant example is Psalm 22:1, which contains the words Jesus later cried out from the cross: “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34). Psalm 22 also foreshadows the mocking of the crucified Jesus (verses 7-8; see Matthew 27:39-44; Mark 15:29-32; Luke 23:35-39). Another messianic psalm is Psalm 34, which says: “A righteous man may have many troubles, but the Lord delivers him from them all; he protects all his bones, not one of them will be broken” (34:19-20). Although the criminals crucified with Jesus had their bones broken by the Roman soldiers, this did not happen to Jesus (John 19:31-36). This was a foreshadowing of Jesus’ deliverance from death, and his ultimate triumph.
Other topics
* Prayer: The Psalms are a record of people’s prayers to God. John Drane writes: 
“The belief that ordinary people could have direct access to God was a fundamental part of the Old Testament faith. Not only prophets such as Elijah, or kings such as Solomon, but ordinary people such as Hannah could bring their everyday problems to God.... The book of Psalms contains many examples of prayers that were no doubt used by individuals, as well as by groups of worshippers, to give thanks and to express their trust and confidence in God” (An Introduction to the Bible, pp. 310-311).
* Repentance: When David acknowledged his sins and repented, he experienced forgiveness from God: “I acknowledged my sin to you and did not cover up my iniquity. I said, ‘I will confess my transgressions to the Lord’ — and you forgave the guilt of my sin” (32:5). David’s prayers for mercy, especially Psalm 51, which was composed after his sins of adultery and murder, are prime examples of how we should approach God when we have sinned.
* God’s law: “The law of the Lord is perfect, reviving the soul. The statutes of the Lord are trustworthy, making wise the simple. The precepts of the Lord are right, giving joy to the heart. The commands of the Lord are radiant, giving light to the eyes” (19:7-8). The first psalm describes the blessed man whose “delight is in the law of the Lord, and on his law he meditates day and night” (1:2). The longest chapter in the Bible, Psalm 119, is a magnificent poem of praise for the law. The Psalm emphasizes that God’s law is not only righteous, it is a delight to those who study it.
What this book means for you
This book encompasses so many subjects that its meaning is almost impossible to summarize: 
“The Psalter [another term for the book of Psalms] is so vast in its theological dimensions that any systematizing effort must fall short. It will continue to stimulate our life of faith even in this different age, just as it has done for centuries” (Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Psalms: Part 1, The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, vol. 14, p. 36).
In Psalms, we see God the Creator, God the Sustainer of his creation, God the Righteous ruler and God the Redeemer of his people. But we also see people like us in a close relationship with this God.
Perhaps the best part of the Psalms is their accessibility — we can relate to the emotions, the ups and downs, the difficulties expressed so movingly by the authors of the various psalms. We can also relate to the language they used. Although the Psalms are full of figures of speech, these are easily understood and express truths in a memorable way:
* The wicked are like chaff that the wind blows away (1:4), 
* the Lord is a refuge for the oppressed (9:9), 
* the Lord is my shepherd (23:1), 
* my soul thirsts for the living God (42:2), 
* righteousness and justice are the foundation of God’s throne (89:14), 
* the rivers will clap hands and the mountains will sing for joy when God judges the earth (98:8-9), 
* God’s word is a lamp to the feet and a light for the path (119:105) and 
* “those who trust in the Lord are like Mount Zion, which cannot be shaken but endures forever” (125:1).
The Psalms call us to join believers throughout the ages in worshiping God, in proclaiming his majesty, in expressing our fears and hopes to him and, most importantly, placing our absolute trust in him, our Creator and Redeemer.
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The Key to Biblical Poetry
How can we increase in biblical understanding? One way is to learn more about biblical poetry. Several books in the Bible are written either totally or predominantly in poetry: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Songs and Lamentations. Moreover, many parts of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets are also written in poetry. And we shall see that the most important poetic effects in biblical poetry can be appreciated even in an English translation.

Translating poetry is notoriously difficult. Many translations of Homer’s epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, for example, are in prose rather than poetry. Rhythm, rhyme, repetitive sounds and wordplays are not easily reproduced in a translation. However, the key to appreciating biblical poetry, and indeed most of the ancient Near Eastern poetry, is none of these. It is parallelism.
A typical verse of Hebrew poetry is divided into two or more complementary parts or members — and these members parallel each other in some way. In the books of Job, Psalms and Proverbs, the scribes often inserted gaps to separate the different members of each verse. Most English versions of the Bible retain the parallelism of the Hebrew text.
Look at Proverbs 6:20-21:
“My son, keep your father’s commands 
and do not forsake your mother’s teaching.
Bind them upon your heart forever;
fasten them around your neck.”
Both verses divide into two members, with the second member repeating the thought of the first in different words. The next verse is divided into three parallel members:
“When you walk, they will guide you;
when you sleep, they will watch over you;
when you awake, they will speak to you” (verse 22).
Notice that in the above examples, it is not only the thoughts that are parallel but also the grammatical structures, especially in verse 22. Furthermore, the terms in one member have corresponding terms in the other member: “keep” and “do not forsake,” “father’s commands” and “mother’s teaching,” “bind” and “fasten” etc.
Parallelism is not simply repetition. The Hebrews used a wide variety of techniques to enable the final member of the verse to complete, intensify or give additional meaning to the earlier members. Biblical scholars have compiled extensive analysis of the grammatical, phonological, lexical and semantic changes used in moving from one line to the next. We will briefly look at some of the more common types.
In staircase parallelism, the second member repeats verbatim the beginning of the first member:
“Ascribe to the Lord, O mighty ones,
ascribe to the Lord glory and strength.
Ascribe to the Lord the glory due his name;
worship the Lord in the splendor of his holiness” (Psalm 29:1-2).
This form, also called climactic parallelism, is used to build a series of climaxes in Psalms 29 and 94, for example.
Antithetical parallelism is often marked in English translations by the word but dividing the members:
“The Lord abhors dishonest scales,
but accurate weights are his delight” (Proverbs 11:1).
These sort of contrasts are particularly frequent in Proverbs 10–15, but throughout the Psalms also:
“The Lord watches over the way of the righteous,
but the way of the wicked will perish” (Psalm 1:6).
In emblematic parallelism, one of the members is a simile or metaphor:
“As the deer pants for streams of water,
so my soul pants for you, O God” (Psalm 42:1) 
and
“Like a lily among thorns
is my darling among the maidens” (Song of Songs 2:2).
A chiastic parallelism, a form of envelope structure, inverts the word order in the second line:
“Long life is in her [wisdom’s] right hand;
in her left hand are riches and honor” (Proverbs 3:16)
and 
“The Lord has dealt with me according to my righteousness
according to the cleanness of my hands he has rewarded me” (Psalm 18:20).
External parallelism is where an entire verse is parallel to the next verse, or perhaps the first verse is parallel to the third verse and the second verse is parallel to the fourth verse:
“Lift up your heads, O you gates
be lifted up, you ancient doors,
that the King of glory may come in.
Who is this King of glory?
The Lord strong and mighty,
the Lord mighty in battle.
Lift up your heads, O you gates
lift them up, you ancient doors,
that the King of glory may come in.
Who is he, this King of glory?
The Lord Almighty — 
he is the King of glory” (Psalm 24:7-10).
Understanding even the basics about parallelism gives us a greater appreciation of the poetic sections of the Bible. If you want to study this subject further, you may wish to read James L. Kugel’s The Idea of Biblical Poetry, which is a detailed examination of parallelism, and Robert Alter’s The Art of Biblical Poetry, which has chapters discussing how parallelism is used to enhance the messages in the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Songs and the prophetic books.
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Types of Psalms

A Hebrew scribe writes on papyrus (above). Scrolls of papyrus were often stored in clay jars for protection (Jeremiah 32:14) and were frequently sealed (Revelation 5:1). Papyrus is translated as “paper” in 2 John 12.
A Psalm for every occasion
The book of Psalms can be one of the most effective tools in building your relationship with God. If you feel your prayer life is in decline, read the Psalms. They are the emotional outpourings of people in many different situations. They are “a treasury of experiences accumulated by generations of people who lived in the region where the cradle of our own civilization stood” (Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Psalms: Part 1, The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, vol. 14, p. 36). Reading their prayers can help rejuvenate your own prayer life.
Some psalms are for periods of joy, when you want to praise your Creator or give thanks to him. Others help in those times of depression when you are going through a severe trial. Still other psalms are confessions of sin and requests for forgiveness. As the apostle John said, “If we confess our sins, [Jesus Christ] is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness” (1 John 1:9).
Many people are surprised by how boldly the psalmists speak to God. They do not hesitate to confront him with their everyday problems, to verbalize their frustration, their anger, their resentment or their despair. But that is how God wants us to be when we talk with him — open, honest, not pulling any punches. The Life Application Bible states:
“Because of the honesty expressed by the psalmists, men and women throughout history have come, again and again, to the book of Psalms for comfort during times of struggle and distress. And with the psalmists, they have risen from the depths of despair to new heights of joy and praise as they also discovered the power of God’s everlasting love and forgiveness” (“Introduction to Psalms”).
Another benefit of studying the Psalms is that it will help make the congregational singing at worship services more meaningful to you. Many of the hymns sung in church services worldwide are based on the Psalms. These hymns are effective since many of the psalms were written to express the thoughts and feelings of the community, the congregation of believers.
As we examine in further detail the different types of psalms — the individual and the congregational, the instructive and the emotional —we shall see that there is a psalm for every occasion.
Hymns of praise
The main element in many psalms is simply praising God. Psalm 145 is a prime example. David begins: “I will exalt you, my God the King; I will praise your name for ever and ever. Every day I will praise you and extol your name for ever and ever” (verses 1-2).
David then shows how others will exalt God: “One generation will commend your works to another; they will tell of your mighty acts. They will speak of the glorious splendor of your majesty, and I will meditate on your wonderful works. They will tell of the power of your awesome works, and I will proclaim your great deeds” (verses 4-6). David concludes by calling upon everyone to praise God’s name (verse 21).
Several hymns of praise emphasize admiration and wonder at God’s creation. In Psalm 8, David begins and ends with the same words of praise:”O Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth!” (verses 1, 9). Beginning and ending a thought with the same words is known as the envelope structure, which is common in the book of Psalms. This structure emphasizes the main point — God’s name is to be praised in all the earth.
While David praises God for the creation, he also marvels that God is so concerned with humans: “When I consider your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars, which you have set in place, what is man that you are mindful of him, the son of man that you care for him?” (verses 3-4).
Humans, alone of God’s creation, were made in the image of God. God, the transcendent Creator of the universe, wants us to have an eternal relationship with him. He begins by giving us an important responsibility on his earth: “You made [humanity] a little lower than the heavenly beings and crowned him with glory and honor. You made him ruler over the works of your hands; you put everything under his feet: all flocks and herds, and the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, all that swim the paths of the seas” (verses 5-8).
In Genesis, God placed the first man and woman in the garden and told them to work it and take care of it (Genesis 2:15). David here repeats that God has ordained human beings to have responsibility to rule the creation. As such, it is our duty to care for our environment.
In another hymn of praise, David proclaims: “Ascribe to the Lord the glory due his name; worship the Lord in the splendor of his holiness” (Psalm 29:2). Throughout this psalm, David praises God’s power in a series of striking figures of speech: “The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars; the Lord breaks in pieces the cedars of Lebanon. He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, Sirion like a young wild ox. The voice of the Lord strikes with flashes of lightning. The voice of the Lord shakes the desert” (verses 5-8).
Some hymns of praise were sung together by the community. Psalm 33, which calls for all to praise God and describes his mighty deeds, ends with the community proclaiming: “We wait in hope for the Lord; he is our help and our shield. In him our hearts rejoice, for we trust in his holy name. May your unfailing love rest upon us, O Lord, even as we put our hope in you” (verses 20-22).
Psalms 104 and 105 are complementary hymns of praise, both ending with “Praise the Lord” (Psalm 104:35; 105:45). Psalm 104 praises God as the Sustainer of his creation: “He makes springs pour water into the ravines; it flows between the mountains. They give water to all the beasts of the field.... He makes grass grow for the cattle, and plants for man to cultivate — bringing forth food from the earth: wine that gladdens the heart of man, oil to make his face shine, and bread that sustains his heart” (verses 10-11, 14-15).
God is the Creator and the Sustainer of his creation. He is the Life-giver and the Provider of sustenance. All God’s creatures “look to you to give them their food at the proper time. When you give it to them, they gather it up; when you open your hand, they are satisfied with good things. When you hide your face, they are terrified; when you take away their breath, they die and return to the dust. When you send your Spirit, they are created, and you renew the face of the earth” (verses 27-30). Here we also see the activity of the Spirit of God in creating and in renewing the creation.
Psalm 105 praises God for his loyalty: “He remembers his covenant forever, the word he commanded, for a thousand generations, the covenant he made with Abraham, the oath he swore to Isaac. He confirmed it to Jacob as a decree, to Israel as an everlasting covenant” (verses 8-10).
The psalm recalls how God demonstrated his faithfulness to his people centuries earlier by sending Joseph before them into Egypt to save them from the famine (verses 16-22). It recalls how God directed his chosen servants Moses and Aaron to perform his signs and wonders to the Egyptians, and how God delivered his people from slavery (verses 26-41).
All these hymns of praise are examples for us: A good portion of our prayer time should be spent in praising God. Jesus began his model prayer, “Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name” (Matthew 6:9). We, too, would do well to begin our prayers by praising God. We should praise God as the Creator, Sustainer and Life-giver, and as the Ever-faithful One to his people.
Songs of thanksgiving
Whereas the hymn of praise glorifies God for being who he is, the song of thanksgiving emphasizes gratitude for what he has done for us. In Psalm 30, David says: “I will exalt you, O Lord, for you lifted me out of the depths and did not let my enemies gloat over me. O Lord my God, I called to you for help and you healed me” (verses 1-2).
David calls others to join him in praising God: “Sing to the Lord, you saints of his; praise his holy name” (verse 4). He thanks God for having turned his life around: “You turned my wailing into dancing; you removed my sackcloth and clothed me with joy, that my heart may sing to you and not be silent. O Lord my God, I will give you thanks forever” (verses 11-12).
 

 “In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for [making] the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the ‘singing-master’ appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22, 23). From passages such as these we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time” (Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 2, p. 1504). 
Psalm 66 is another typical song of thanksgiving. It begins with an exultation of joy: “Shout with joy to God, all the earth! Sing the glory of his name; make his praise glorious! Say to God, ‘How awesome are your deeds! So great is your power that your enemies cringe before you. All the earth bows down to you; they sing praise to you, they sing praise to your name.’ Selah” (verses 1-4). The term selah marks the end of a strophe — a musical term for a section of verses. This particular psalm is divided into four strophes: verses 1-4, 5-7, 8-15 and 16-20.
In the second strophe, the psalmist recalls God’s mercy to Israel when he parted the waters of the Red Sea, enabling Israel to escape from the Egyptians (verses 5-7). In the third strophe, the composer thanks the God who “has preserved our lives and kept our feet from slipping” (verse 9), and describes how God has tested and refined them through trials (verses 10-12).
This last point is especially important. In the midst of our trials, we often cry out to God for deliverance. And so we should. But we also need to remember that through our trials we develop godly patience. The apostle James wrote: “Consider it pure joy, my brothers, whenever you face trials of many kinds, because you know that the testing of your faith develops perseverance” (James 1:2-3).
In the final strophe of Psalm 66, the author thanks God for what he has done for him personally, and acknowledges that God has answered his prayers (verses 16-20). When trouble strikes, how easy it is to forget the blessings God has given us. So when we pray, let us remember what God has done on our behalf, and thank him for it.
Praise and thanksgiving go hand in hand. Psalm 103 begins and ends with the inclusion: “Praise the Lord, O my soul” (verses 1, 22). But much of the psalm is devoted to being thankful for God’s blessings: “And forget not all his benefits — who forgives all your sins and heals all your diseases, who redeems your life from the pit and crowns you with love and compassion, who satisfies your desires with good things so that your youth is renewed like the eagle’s” (verses 2-5).
This list of blessings includes two of vital importance: God forgives sins and he heals diseases. Jesus exercised his authority as God to forgive sin and to heal (Matthew 9:2-8). God’s forgiving nature is one of the attributes we should be most grateful for: “He does not treat us as our sins deserve or repay us according to our iniquities. For as high as the heavens are above the earth, so great is his love for those who fear him; as far as the east is from the west, so far has he removed our transgressions from us” (Psalm 103:10-12).
David ends the psalm with a triple invocation to bless God: “Praise the Lord, you his angels, you mighty ones who do his bidding, who obey his word. Praise the Lord, all his heavenly hosts, you his servants who do his will. Praise the Lord, all his works everywhere in his dominion” (verses 20-22), followed by the inclusion: “Praise the Lord, O my soul.”
One psalm particularly emphasizes thanking God for his mercy — Psalm 136. It begins: “Give thanks to the Lord, for he is good. His love endures forever. Give thanks to the God of gods. His love endures forever. Give thanks to the Lord of lords: His love endures forever” (verses 1-3). All 26 verses of this psalm end with the same refrain: “His love endures forever.” The Hebrew word translated “love” here is not ‘ahabhah, the standard word for “love,” but chesed. As we mention in our commentary on Ruth, chesed means “steadfast love” or “faithfulness born out of a sense of caring and commitment.”
Psalm 136 marvels at God’s wonders (verses 4-9) and shows how God demonstrated his chesed by his blessings upon Israel (verses 10-22). This psalm was a communal song. Those who sang it thanked God, “who remembered us in our low estate...and freed us from our enemies” (verses 23-24).
The psalm concludes with another point we should bear in mind when we pray: “Give thanks to the God of heaven. His love endures forever” (verse 26). Again, this ties in with the hymns of praise — we can thank God that he is the loving Ever-faithful One.
Psalm Superscriptions
Many psalms contain a superscription giving information about the psalm. In the Hebrew Bible, the superscription often counts as the first verse of the psalm. (The Hebrew Bible and English translations will therefore often differ by one verse.)
Many psalms are assigned in the superscriptions to certain individuals, such as David, or certain groups of individuals, such as the Sons of Korah. Thirteen psalms relate the historical background to David’s life at the time of the psalm: Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142. This information enhances our appreciation of the psalm.
Superscriptions often convey information concerning the musical performance of the psalm. Sometimes they name the accompanying tune: “The Death of the Son” (Psalm 9), “The Lily of the Covenant” (Psalm 60) and “Do Not Destroy” (Psalms 57, 58, 59, 75). Unfortunately, we do not know any of these melodies today.
Other superscriptions tell us which instruments accompanied the psalm: stringed instruments (Psalms 4, 61, 76), flutes (Psalm 5), an eight-stringed harp (sheminith) (Psalms 6, 12) and an instrument of Gath (gittith) (Psalms 8, 81, 84). We can only conjecture how some of these instruments may have looked and sounded.
The category of the psalm is often included in the superscription. The two most common are “psalm” (mizmor) and “song” (shir). Other categories include: shiggaion (Psalm 7), miktam (Psalms 16, 56–60) and maskil (Psalms 32, 74, 142). The New International Version leaves these terms untranslated from the Hebrew.
Again, it is not known for sure what many of these terms mean. This lack of knowledge is another indication of the gap that exists between our culture and that of the ancient Hebrews. Even if all the superscriptions achieve is to make us realize that there is always more to understand about the Bible, they will have done us a great service.
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Types of Psalms — Part 2
Royal Psalms
Scholars often refer to some of the psalms as “royal” psalms. These psalms are not all of one literary type, such as prayers of petition and songs of thanksgiving, but they are linked thematically by their emphasis on how God works through the office of king. The royal psalms can be subdivided into smaller groupings. For example, Psalm 45 is a royal wedding psalm; Psalms 46, 48, 87 and 122 concern the royal city, Zion or Jerusalem. We will concentrate on two categories of royal psalms: the Yahweh-Kingship psalms and the coronation psalms.
Psalm 47 exhibits the traits of the Yahweh-Kingship psalm, declaring, “How awesome is the Lord Most High, the great King over all the earth!” (verse 2). The psalmist praises God as the ruler over all nations, as the King par excellence: “God is the King of all the earth; sing to him a psalm of praise. God reigns over the nations; God is seated on his holy throne. The nobles of the nations assemble as the people of the God of Abraham, for the kings of the earth belong to God; he is greatly exalted” (verses 7-9).
Psalm 93 elaborates on the majesty of God as king: “The Lord reigns, he is robed in majesty; the Lord is robed in majesty and is armed with strength. The world is firmly established; it cannot be moved. Your throne was established long ago; you are from all eternity” (verses 1-2).
Psalms 96 – 99 continue the Yahweh-Kingship theme: “Say among the nations, ‘The Lord reigns’” Psalm 96:10); “The Lord reigns, let the earth be glad; let the distant shores rejoice.... Righteousness and justice are the foundation of his throne” (Psalm 97:1-2); “With trumpets and the blast of the ram’s horn — shout for joy before the Lord, the King” (Psalm 98:6); and “The Lord reigns, let the nations tremble; he sits enthroned between the cherubim, let the earth shake” (Psalm 99:1).
While the Yahweh-Kingship psalms emphasize that Yahweh, the one true God, reigns supreme, the coronation psalms concern more particularly the role of the human king who reigns on the throne of David, and his relationship with God.
Psalm 2 is an excellent example of a coronation psalm. It describes the kings of the earth vainly banding together against God (verses 1-3). As in the Yahweh-Kingship psalms, God’s supreme kingship is praised: “The One enthroned in heaven laughs; the Lord scoffs at them” (verse 4).Then God declares, “I have installed my King on Zion, my holy hill” (verse 6). The king ruling on the throne of David was enthroned by God to fulfill his purpose. God tells the king, “You are my Son; today I have become your Father. Ask of me, and I will make the nations your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (verses 7-8).
One coronation psalm proclaims: “The Lord will extend your mighty scepter from Zion; you will rule in the midst of your enemies. Your troops will be willing on your day of battle” (Psalm 110:2-3).
Psalm 72 is a coronation psalm connected with Solomon. It begins: “Endow the king with your justice, O God, the royal son with your righteousness. He will judge your people in righteousness, your afflicted ones with justice” (verses 1-2). The language used throughout this psalm is idealistic; it was never fulfilled by Solomon or any other king: “He will endure as long as the sun, as long as the moon, through all generations.... All kings will bow down to him and all nations will serve him.... All nations will be blessed through him, and they will call him blessed” (verses 5, 11, 17).
These coronation psalms describe the king as God’s son, and picture him ruling with unlimited justice and power — the same way God is portrayed in the Yahweh-Kingship psalms. No human king could ever fulfill these psalms; they ultimately point to Jesus Christ, the King of kings, who will reign forever (Revelation 11:15; 19:16).
Songs of confidence
Songs of confidence are aptly named — the individual or community expresses its confidence and trust in the ever-reliable God. Psalm 16, for example, begins: “Keep me safe, O God, for in you I take refuge” (verse 1).

The most famous song of confidence is undoubtedly Psalm 23: “Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for you are with me” (verse 4). The same sentiment is expressed by the community in Psalm 46: “God is our refuge and strength, an ever-present help in trouble. Therefore we will not fear, though the earth give way and the mountains fall into the heart of the sea, though its waters roar and foam and the mountains quake with their surging. Selah” (verses 1-3).
As we have already noted, the term selah marks the end of a strophe or section of the song. Psalm 46 — which could also be classified as a “Zion hymn,” a subcategory of the royal psalms — is divided into three strophes. The last two stanzas end by reconfirming the community’s absolute trust in God: “The Lord Almighty is with us; the God of Jacob is our fortress. Selah” (verses 7, 11). This is an inspiring message for Christians, whom the apostle Paul reminds, “If God is for us, who can be against us?” Romans 8:31).
In Psalm 52, David contrasts the security of his trust in God with Doeg’s misplaced trust in riches: “The righteous...will laugh at [Doeg], saying, ‘Here now is the man who did not make God his stronghold but trusted in his great wealth and grew strong by destroying others!’ But I am like an olive tree flourishing in the house of God; I trust in God’s unfailing love for ever and ever” (verses 6-8).
Psalm 62 is another song of confidence divided into three strophes. In this psalm, David describes God metaphorically as “my rock and my salvation” (verses 2, 6). As we face the uncertainties of life, these psalms encouragingly point us toward the great God who can be relied upon absolutely (Deuteronomy 31:6).
Wisdom Psalms
The wisdom psalms contain teachings and principles that are similar to those in the book of Proverbs, but they are expressed in the form of psalms. The wisdom psalms give instruction: “Refrain from anger and turn from wrath; do not fret — it leads only to evil” (37:8). The wisdom psalms state general principles: “Better the little that the righteous have than the wealth of many wicked” (verse 16). They praise God’s law: “The law of the Lord is perfect, reviving the soul. The statutes of the Lord are trustworthy, making wise the simple” (Psalm 19:7). They speak about wisdom: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom; all who follow his precepts have good understanding” (Psalm 111:10).
Psalms 37, 111 and 112 are wisdom psalms with an acrostic pattern; each verse begins with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This pattern made the psalms easier to recite.
The wisdom psalms, like Proverbs, give an ideal picture. The person who delights in God’s law “is like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its fruit in season and whose leaf does not wither. Whatever he does prospers” (Psalm 1:3). By contrast, the wicked “are like chaff that the wind blows away” (verse 4). Another psalm describes the God-fearing person: “Wealth and riches are in his house, and his righteousness endures forever” (Psalm 112:3). These psalms give general principles, not absolute laws. This type of teaching will be explained in more detail in our commentary on Proverbs.
Acrostic Psalms
Acrostic psalms do not have a common purpose in the same way as do the hymns of praise or the prayers of petition. 
But they do have something else in common — they all use a poetic device known as the acrostic.
Certain acrostic psalms adhere more completely to the acrostic pattern than others. 
Differences also arise between single acrostics and multiple acrostics.
Essentially, an acrostic poem begins with the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet and the succeeding lines begin with successive letters of the alphabet. 
For example, the lines in Psalm 111 begin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet.
Growing up in Western society, where poetry traditionally has a set meter and frequently a rhyming scheme, we may fail to appreciate an important role the acrostic plays in biblical poetry. 
Hebrew poetry has neither regular rhythm nor rhyme and is often extremely emotional.
Imposing an acrostic structure on a poem may either serve as a memory aid or prevent the emotional aspects of the poem from descending into an incoherent jumble of words.
Just as the sentences in this box are somewhat contrived, so the acrostic psalms sometimes sound artificial. 
Keeping the story flow going while adhering to an acrostic structure is not easy.
Lamentations is particularly highly structured: Each of the first four chapters is an acrostic poem, the third chapter being a triple acrostic. 
Most of the other acrostic poems are in the Psalms (Psalms 9 – 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119 and 145), but one of the most famous acrostics is Proverbs 31:10-31, which exquisitely describes the wife of noble character.
Not every acrostic poem has lines that correspond to the verses in our Bible. 
Often the lines are two verses long, and occasionally they are one and a half verses long.
Psalm 119 is the supreme example of a multiple acrostic poem; it has eight verses beginning with the first letter of the alphabet, then eight verses beginning with the second letter and so on.
Quite a few of the acrostic psalms, including Psalm 119, are connected with wisdom motifs, such as the majesty of God’s law. 
Regarding genre, however, the acrostic psalms do not fall into any one category. 
Some are hymns of praise, some are songs of confidence and others are penitentiary psalms.
The acrostic psalms can be appreciated on their own merit even without knowledge of the acrostic pattern.
Understanding the special techniques used in these psalms, however, gives us a deeper appreciation of them. 
Veins of gold lie hidden in the Bible for those who take the time and effort to dig them out.
While we would like to complete our own acrostic in this section, we cannot find any sensible conclusion, so here is what we came up with instead.
Xylophones might be used in modern hymn services, but possibly did not exist in ancient Israel, which explains why most scholars do not believe they were used originally in the performance of acrostic psalms. 
You can see how difficult it is to compose an acrostic, which should give you an appreciation of the skill with which the acrostic poems in the Bible were written.
Zeal and dedication must have been strong traits of their authors.
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Psalms Can Help You Pray
By John Halford
The Psalms show us the Old Testament community of faith relating openly and honestly to the God of Israel. They therefore include important principles of effective prayer for believers today.

The book of Psalms served as both hymnal and prayer book for ancient Israel. It was the record of how the chosen nation once worshiped and prayed to their God. Prayer is one of the most important — and sometimes most difficult — things we learn to do. It is important, because it is an opportunity to talk to God. It is sometimes difficult, though, because it can seem to be an awkward and one-sided conversation.
It was the same in New Testament times. “Teach us to pray,” a disciple once asked Jesus (Luke 11:1). They were used to the formal, congregational prayers of the temple and synagogue. Unlike Jesus, the religious leaders of the day did not emphasize spontaneous, personal prayer.
Yet the disciples noticed that Jesus seemed to be able to pray at any time and place. The disciples wanted to be able to talk to God like that. You probably do, too. But perhaps when you try, you don’t know what to say. Your attention wanders. You get up feeling your prayers have gone no higher than the ceiling.
The Psalms can help. Other books of the Bible give us a historical record of Israel’s relationship with God. Psalms gives us a more intimate look. It is like learning about an event by reading the personal correspondence between the main participants. We begin to appreciate not only what happened, but also the emotions of those involved. This is what makes Psalms helpful as we build our relationship with God.
Seventy-three of the Bible’s 150 psalms are attributed to David, whom God called “a man after my own heart” (Acts 13:22). David was a gifted poet and musician, and Israel’s greatest king. He lived life to the full, made mistakes, reaped the pain and the suffering, and got deeply discouraged. But David loved God, and even in those moments of agony and despair he continued talking to him.
There are times when we all need to talk about our problems with a close friend to help put them in perspective. This is exactly what David did with God. He was not afraid to express his emotions — fear, sorrow, hope, anxiety, joy, longing and even frustration, impatience and anger. In the Psalms, David poured out his heart to God. When we meditate on these inspirational prayers, we will see that, in the end, David always found strength and comfort in God and was able to express hope and trust in him.
The psalms of David, and the book of Psalms in general, can invigorate your prayers with real, down-to-earth expressions that reflect your own thoughts. You’ll think: That’s exactly what I want to say! It’s reassuring to know that other people have had your problems. God inspired and preserved these prayers and songs so that you, too, could know how to talk to him.
Here are some important principles from the Psalms to help you pray more effectively:
1) Don’t be afraid to say what’s on your mind. 
You should always approach God respectfully, and it is always appropriate to praise him. There are times when you are filled with hope and enthusiasm. You feel close to God, and you appreciate what he has done for you. This is how David felt when he wrote Psalm 65. (Note also Psalms 66 and 67.)
But he didn’t always pray like this. For example, look at Psalms 54, 56, 57 and 59. On these occasions, David was in trouble, and he wasted no time in asking for help. On other occasions, David even asked God to hurry up and help him (Psalms 70:1, 5; 38:22; 40:13, 17; 143:7). Once, David actually asked God if he had forgotten him (Psalm 13:1-2). Similarly, you should not be afraid to tell God precisely what’s on your mind. And like David, you can urge God to intervene in your life.
2) Don’t hide your mistakes. 
Some people feel awkward about praying, especially after they have made a big mistake. Or perhaps they have not prayed for a long time, and they think they aren’t worthy of God’s love and acceptance.
At times such as these, it is reassuring to read Psalm 51, written when David had sinned about as badly as anyone in the Bible. After committing adultery with Bathsheba, David had her husband Uriah killed (see 2 Samuel 11). David’s actions were especially repulsive to God because, as king of Israel, he should have been the moral leader of the nation.
But when David recognized his sin, he went to God in humility and genuine repentance, asking for forgiveness. And God heard. David knew he was a sinner, and asked God to help keep him from continuing to sin. Another time David prayed, “Forgive my hidden faults. Keep your servant also from willful sins” (Psalm 19:12-13).
In the same way, we should admit our sins to God. When we confess, God “is faithful and just and will forgive our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness” (1 John 1:9).
3) Wait for God’s answer. 
Prayer is a spiritual act of worship in which we share our most intimate thoughts with God the Father (Luke 11:2), through Jesus Christ his Son. It is not a magic formula for getting everything we want exactly when we want it (see James 4:3). Of course, we should make our requests known to God (Philippians 4:6), but we should not expect God to answer our prayers our way every time.
David’s prayers were not always answered right away. God was working with him across a lifetime, and the relationship was not casual or superficial.
Although God will give you the “desires of your heart” (Psalm 37:4), there are also lessons to be learned in enduring a trial, for example. Sometimes we must wait in faith for God to answer in his way and in his time. Psalms gives some fascinating glimpses into the minds of people as they endured trials of their faith.
In Psalm 73, the author, Asaph, expresses anger and impatience at what seems like God’s indifference. He even wonders if living God’s way is worth it (verse 13). God allows this, because as Asaph sorts out his churning emotions, he calms down and his faith and patience is restored (verses 21-26). You’ll find another example of a prayer changing a negative mood in Psalm 10.
God knows that we have emotions. We do not always have to appear before him cool, calm and collected. A relationship with God is a learning process. Sometimes we need to be guided through life’s trials and tribulations, not just “airlifted out” of every situation. This is a vital part of our spiritual growth. During such times of stress, God will help us sort out our negative thoughts and emotions, and give us a peace of mind that “transcends all understanding” (Philippians 4:7).
Never be afraid to pray openly and honestly to God, even during the darkest hours of your life. But be willing — and prepared — to wait for God’s answer in God’s time.
Remember, also, that God’s answer may be no. For example, Paul told the church at Corinth: “To keep me from becoming conceited...there was given me a thorn in my flesh...to torment me” (2 Corinthians 12:7). Paul explained: “Three times I pleaded with the Lord to take it away from me. But he said to me, ‘My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness’” (verses 8-9).
We don’t know what Paul’s thorn in the flesh was, but it hindered his ministry and he asked God to remove it. God refused. Paul acknowledged that this “thorn” kept him humble (verse 7). It reminded him of his daily need for contact with God.
So, while we should present our requests urgently and fervently to God, we must wait patiently while God decides how and when he will answer. As David said, “Be strong and take heart and wait for the Lord” (Psalm 27:14).
4) Have confidence in the outcome. 
When everything around us seems to be falling apart, it’s hard to walk by faith. But that’s exactly what Christians are called to do (2 Corinthians 5:7). David told God, “Though I walk in the midst of trouble, you preserve my life” (Psalm 138:7). He learned that no matter how bad things looked, God would eventually assert his will and control.
God will never forsake those who trust him (Psalm 9:10). Even so, there will be times when we will feel rejection, humiliation, frustration and all the emotional weather of an active and spiritually rich human life.
The Psalms can help us understand this, as we share the intimate thoughts of servants of God who have gone before us. They help us talk to God as a friend. They remind us of what we tend to forget when we are discouraged and temporarily disoriented. They are spiritual levees that control the flood of negative emotions and worry, guiding it along safe channels, where it can be dissipated safely (Psalms 32:6; 69:1).
As we build our relationship and friendship with the same God who listened to the prayers of David and other authors of the Psalms, we will also grow in courage and faith. We will feel confident in asking, “May the words of my mouth and the meditation of my heart be pleasing in your sight” (Psalm 19:14). Like David, we can look beyond the immediate situation and realize “there is a future for the man of peace” (Psalm 37:37).
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The Lord Is My Shepherd
One of the best-loved passages in the Bible is Psalm 23. Its simple affirmation of complete trust and confidence in God has inspired countless people from generation to generation.

David’s role as shepherd prefigures Jesus Christ (John 10:11, 14). The shepherd metaphor culminates in the book of Revelation: “The Lamb [Jesus Christ] at the center of the throne will be their shepherd; he will lead them to springs of living water. And God will wipe away every tear from their eyes” (Revelation 7:17). 
Psalm 23 relies on two familiar metaphors for its effectiveness: God as Shepherd and God as Host. This combination would have been particularly effective to its Hebrew audience, since the shepherd motif was closely related to the host motif in ancient Near Eastern thought.
Titled simply “A Psalm of David,” this psalm has universal appeal, bringing comfort to all who have experienced periods of deep trouble in life. The first verse summarizes the essence of the psalm: “The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not be in want.”
This statement is only four words long in the Hebrew, yet it says so much. David was a shepherd. He knew that a good shepherd is personally involved with the welfare of his sheep, protecting and providing for them. David portrayed God in the role of a good shepherd, caring for his people. With God as his shepherd, David could want for nothing.
The shepherd metaphor is developed further: “He makes me lie down in green pastures, he leads me beside quiet waters. He restores my soul” (verses 2-3).
As Willem A. VanGemeren writes: “The ‘green pastures’ are the rich and verdant pastures, where the sheep need not move from place to place to be satisfied.... The sheep have time to rest, as the shepherd makes them to ‘lie down.’ The ‘quiet waters’ are the wells and springs where the sheep can drink without being rushed” (“Psalms,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 5, p. 216).
By leading the sheep to green pastures and still waters, the shepherd restores or rejuvenates the sheep. David claims that God similarly restores his innermost being. The effectiveness of this metaphor lies in its simplicity and familiarity. God diligently shepherds his people and lovingly watches over them.
David now extends the metaphor to emphasize the shepherd’s role as the guide of the sheep: “He guides me in paths of righteousness for his name’s sake” (verse 3). The shepherd knows the right paths on which to lead the sheep to the green pastures. Similarly, God leads us along the path to eternal life. We need to ask God daily for his direction. As David prayed: “Direct me in the path of your commands, for there I find delight. Turn my heart toward your statutes and not toward selfish gain” (Psalm 119:35-36).
The fourth verse concludes the shepherd metaphor: “Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for you are with me; your rod and your staff, they comfort me.” The phrase “shadow of death,” which can also be translated “deep darkness,” is used figuratively of extreme danger. The right path may lead through ravines and river valleys where steep slopes block out the sun; the presence of the shepherd, however, calms the sheep. Similarly, we may go through great trials in life, but God is always there to help us.
According to Abraham Cohen, the rod is “a club with which to drive off beasts of prey which attack the sheep” (The Psalms, Soncino Books of the Bible, p. 68). David was undoubtedly skilled in using the rod and may have used it to kill a lion and a bear that attacked the flock he was watching (1 Samuel 17:34-37). 
Shepherds also carried a staff. They probably used it to lean on when necessary, but it also served to keep the sheep on the right path. We can rely on God to protect us from what we are unable to face alone. In this context, Jesus Christ used the shepherd metaphor when he said: “I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep.... I am the good shepherd; I know my sheep and my sheep know me” (John 10:11, 14).
The next verse of Psalm 23 begins a second metaphor, that of God as Host: “You prepare a table before me in the presence of my enemies. You anoint my head with oil; my cup overflows” (verse 5).
A host would anoint the head of a guest as a mark of special honor, a custom that continued in Christ’s day (see Luke 7:46). The overflowing cup symbolized the superabundance the host had in store for the guests. Jesus likened the kingdom of heaven to a wedding banquet (Matthew 22:1-2). Those who follow God’s way of life can enjoy unlimited blessings as guests in the kingdom of God.
Psalm 23 concludes, “Surely goodness and love will follow me all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever” (verse 6). The New Testament uses the same metaphor of dwelling in God’s house forever: Those who have been made righteous by the blood of the Lamb, Jesus Christ, “are before the throne of God and serve him day and night in his temple; and he who sits on the throne will spread his tent over them. Never again will they hunger; never again will they thirst. The sun will not beat upon them, nor any scorching heat. For the Lamb at the center of the throne will be their shepherd; he will lead them to springs of living water” (Revelation 7:15-17).
Dwelling in God’s house and enjoying abundance go hand in hand. Notice that the passage in Revelation also uses the shepherd theme of the first part of Psalm 23. Throughout its pages, the Bible uses and combines various metaphors to express the great reward that awaits those who follow God’s way of life.
Psalm 23 rightly claims its place as one of the best-loved psalms. Its simple trust in God to lead the way, even through the darkest hour, and its joyous representation of God’s blessings can help strengthen the faith of anyone, even in the most trying of circumstances.
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Psalms: Thematic Collections
Different collections of Psalms
In general, the psalms do not follow each other in any discernible pattern. One psalm may be a prayer of petition, the next a song of thanksgiving and the next some other type. Similarly, the subjects they discuss may be unrelated.
Occasionally, a couple of psalms may have been placed together because of some connection. For example, Psalms 34 and 35 are the only psalms to mention the “angel of the Lord.” Psalms 111 and 112 are both acrostic wisdom psalms. Psalms 57, 58 and 59 — as the superscriptions show — were all sung to the same tune: “Do Not Destroy.”
In other cases, what are now two distinct psalms may have been one psalm originally. Psalms 9 and 10, for example, form one continuous acrostic poem. Also, Psalms 42 and 43 were probably one song in three stanzas, each stanza ending with the refrain: “Why are you downcast, O my soul? Why so disturbed within me? Put your hope in God, for I will yet praise him, my Savior and my God” (Psalm 42:5, 11; 43:5).
Psalms 96–99 are Yahweh-Kingship psalms. Psalms 45–48 form yet another group of royal psalms: Psalm 45 is a royal wedding psalm, Psalms 46 and 48 are Zion hymns and Psalm 47 is a Yahweh-Kingship psalm. We will now examine three other groups of psalms: Psalms 113–118, Psalms 120–134 and Psalms 146–150.
Praising God Psalms
Psalm 113 begins and ends with the inclusio: “Praise the Lord” (verses 1, 9). It establishes the theme of praising God from the beginning: “Praise, O servants of the Lord, praise the name of the Lord. Let the name of the Lord be praised, both now and forevermore. From the rising of the sun to the place where it sets, the name of the Lord is to be praised” (verses 1-3). Psalm 114 illustrates how nature obeyed God in aiding his people Israel. It concludes: “Tremble, O earth, at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob, who turned the rock into a pool, the hard rock into springs of water” (verses 7-8).

David directed the Levites to organize a temple choir “to sing joyful songs” (1 Chronicles 15:16-22). A singer was admitted to the choir at the age of 30 (1 Chronicles 23:3-5), following a five-year apprenticeship, and served for 20 years.
The next three psalms all end with the phrase “Praise the Lord,” which in Hebrew is one word — hallelujah. Psalm 115 calls upon Israel to trust God: “O house of Israel, trust in the Lord — he is their help and shield. O house of Aaron, trust in the Lord — he is their help and shield. You who fear him, trust in the Lord — he is their help and shield” (verses 9-11).
Psalm 116 praises God’s graciousness and his righteousness: “The Lord is gracious and righteous; our God is full of compassion. The Lord protects the simplehearted; when I was in great need, he saved me” (verses 5-6).
Psalm 117 is the shortest chapter in the Bible, yet it summarizes the essence of this set of psalms: “Praise the Lord, all you nations; extol him, all you peoples. For great is his love toward us, and the faithfulness of the Lord endures forever. Praise the Lord” (verses 1-2).
Psalm 118 emphasizes God’s mercy. It begins: “Give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; his love endures forever. Let Israel say: ‘His love endures forever’” (verses 1-2). And it concludes in like manner: “Give thanks to the Lord, for he is good; his love endures forever” (verse 29).
Psalm of praise to the law
Psalm 119 has many unique and inspiring features. It is 176 verses long, which is more than double the length of any other psalm. It is easily the longest chapter in the Bible.
A complete eightfold acrostic psalm, it is broken into 22 stanzas, each containing eight verses, corresponding to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Each verse in the first stanza begins with the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, aleph; each verse in the next stanza begins with the second letter, beth; and so on throughout the psalm.
The length of this psalm is said to have saved the life of one man. George Wishart, who lived in Scotland in the 1600s, was sentenced to be hanged. Custom allowed the condemned to choose a psalm to be sung, and George chose Psalm 119. Before it was three-quarters through, a pardon arrived, thus sparing his life!
The purpose of Psalm 119 is to declare the joy and peace that come from obeying God’s law. The psalm continually emphasizes the blessings that come from walking in God’s way. It begins: “Blessed are they whose ways are blameless, who walk according to the law of the Lord.”
All 176 verses of Psalm 119 have similar form to the verse above, consisting of two parallel parts. This uniform quality of the poem emphasizes that the law is sure and reliable.
Psalm 119 is probably the most highly structured of all the poems in the Bible. Some of the individual stanzas have a definite subtheme within them. Verses 97-104, for example, show how, by studying and meditating on God’s law, the psalmist has gained more understanding than his teachers.
Several key words recur within the psalm. These include: torah (law), mitswah(commands), dabhar (word), piqur (precept) and derekh (way). They are nearly always connected immediately with God, often by means of the possessive pronoun: your law, your way or your commands. In this form, they help illustrate God’s revelation of himself. Almost every verse contains a key word. These key words reinforce the theme of the majesty of God’s law.
Psalm 119 is a wisdom psalm. Like Psalm 1 and the latter part of Psalm 19, it idealizes the law and distinguishes sharply between the blessings of those who keep it and the curses that befall those who stray from it.
In addition to its intrinsic value, Psalm 119 also prepares the way for greater understanding of certain New Testament truths. For example, the apostle Paul’s declaration, “So then, the law is holy, and the commandment is holy, righteous and good” (Romans 7:12), is reminiscent of Psalm 119:172: “All your commands are righteous.”
Consider also verse 105, which says: “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light for my path.” In the New Testament, the apostle John described the pre-existent Christ as “the Word.” He wrote: “In [the Word] was life, and that life was the light of men. The light shines in the darkness” (John 1:4-5).
Prayers of petition
Much of the time when we pray, we have something to request. There is nothing wrong with this. Jesus told his disciples to ask God to supply their needs (Matthew 7:7-11). Similarly, the most common type of psalm is the prayer of petition in which an individual or a community asks God for help with some particularly difficult situation.
Prayers of petition are distinguished by two elements: a complaint and a petition. In the often lengthy complaint section, the individual describes the problem to God. Even though God knows our needs before we pray, he still wants us to tell him our troubles. The apostle Peter tells us, “Cast all your anxiety on [God] because he cares for you” (1 Peter 5:7). In the petition, the individual calls upon God to act, to intervene, to help. This is the purpose of the prayer.
Psalm 44 is typical of the communal prayers of petition. It begins with the community recalling God’s goodness to Israel in previous generations (verses 1-3), and the people expressing their faith in God (verses 4-8). Then comes the complaint. The people describe how, despite their faithfulness, God has allowed them to be persecuted by their enemies (verses 9-22). They cry out: “For your sake we face death all day long; we are considered as sheep to be slaughtered” (verse 22).
This type of community prayer should inspire us when we are wrongly persecuted. Jesus said, “Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (Matthew 5:10). We can, however, still pray for deliverance. The community in Psalm 44 certainly did. “Awake, O Lord! Why do you sleep? Rouse yourself! Do not reject us forever. Why do you hide your face and forget our misery and oppression? We are brought down to the dust; our bodies cling to the ground. Rise up and help us; redeem us because of your unfailing love” (verses 23-26).
These words, asking God why he is sleeping and pleading with him to awake, may seem strong, but God allows for such emotion. In fact, other psalms are stronger still. Psalm 74, for example, is a communal petition that continually reproaches God for not intervening when enemies attack his people. It starts: “Why have you rejected us forever, O God? Why does your anger smolder against the sheep of your pasture? Remember the people you purchased of old, the tribe of your inheritance, whom you redeemed — Mount Zion, where you dwelt” (verses 1-2).
The community tells God the atrocities he has allowed: “Your foes roared in the place where you met with us; they set up their standards as signs.... They burned your sanctuary to the ground; they defiled the dwelling place of your Name” (verses 4, 7). The community reminds God of his great deeds in the past (verses 12-17). The people point out that the enemy has blasphemed his name (verse 18). And they call upon God to act, to intervene: “Rise up, O God, and defend your cause” (verse 22).
In the New Testament, the church earnestly prayed to God on behalf of the apostle Peter (Acts 12:5). God responded by miraculously enabling Peter to escape from prison (verses 6-11). The communal petitions show that God’s people as a whole can interact with God emotionally — pleading with him, reproaching him, expressing frustration with him — but still affirming their faith in him.
The individual petitions, which are more frequent in the Psalms, demonstrate that individuals can also plead their causes to God. When David fled from Absalom, he complained to God about his situation: “O Lord, how many are my foes! How many rise up against me” (Psalm 3:1). He then recalled God’s previous responses to his pleas for help and confidently petitioned God to help him again: “Arise, O Lord! Deliver me, O my God! Strike all my enemies on the jaw; break the teeth of the wicked” (verse 7).
This form of petition, asking God to destroy one’s enemies, is called an imprecation, and such psalms are called imprecatory psalms. The imprecatory psalms must be understood within the context of the old covenant. Christians today should not pray for God to destroy our enemies. Jesus taught: “You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I tell you: Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matthew 5:43-44). We appeal for God to send his Son, Jesus Christ, to return to the earth and end all wickedness and misery.
Most prayers of petition are not imprecatory psalms, but pleas for help, or for deliverance. David consistently petitioned God when he was in danger: “Guard my life and rescue me; let me not be put to shame, for I take refuge in you” (Psalm 25:20).
Despite often starting in a tone of despair, the prayers of petition characteristically end on an upbeat note. In Psalm 54, David begins by complaining to God about the enemies that have risen up against him and sought his life (verses 1-3). At this point, David is desperate. But after pleading with God (verse 5), David feels confident about the outcome: “I will praise your name, O Lord, for it is good. For he has delivered me from all my troubles, and my eyes have looked in triumph on my foes” (verses 6-7). The next three psalms have a similar pattern, beginning with despair, but ending with expressions of trust in God.
The very act of praying can lift our spirits. Christian men and women throughout the centuries have found that expressing their fears, doubts, frustrations and anger honestly in prayer to God is a large part of the solution in resolving their emotional turmoil.
Prayer is a natural vehicle for expressing emotion. Listen to David in this psalm: “I sink in the miry depths, where there is no foothold. I have come into the deep waters; the floods engulf me. I am worn out calling for help; my throat is parched. My eyes fail, looking for my God. Those who hate me without reason outnumber the hairs of my head; many are my enemies without cause, those who seek to destroy me” (Psalm 69:2-4).
David has sunk into depression. He pleads to God, “Rescue me from the mire, do not let me sink; deliver me from those who hate me, from the deep waters” (verse 14). David expresses extreme anger at his adversaries verses 19-28). But again the psalm ends in praise of God (verses 30-36).
One important type of petition is the request for forgiveness. The supreme example is Psalm 51, but there are several others. In this type of psalm, the complaint is replaced by a confession of sin. In Psalm 38, David cries to God for mercy: “O Lord, do not rebuke me in your anger or discipline me in your wrath” (verse 1). David acknowledges his sin: “My guilt has overwhelmed me like a burden too heavy to bear. My wounds fester and are loathsome because of my sinful folly” (verses 4-5). The psalm ends as it began — with a heartfelt appeal to God (verses 21-22).
David knew what a blessing forgiveness is: “Blessed is he whose transgressions are forgiven, whose sins are covered” (Psalm 32:1). Then David recounts his personal experience: “Then I acknowledged my sin to you and did not cover up my iniquity. I said, ‘I will confess my transgressions to the Lord’ — and you forgave the guilt of my sin” (verse 5).
David knows he can confidently proclaim, “The Lord’s unfailing love surrounds the man who trusts in him” (verse 10). This is a tremendously positive message. God does respect our earnest confessions of sin and prayers for forgiveness; he does forgive our sins.
Forgiveness is also available on a national level. The composer of Psalm 130 understood that sin infects everyone, but that God can forgive everyone’s sin: “If you, O Lord, kept a record of sins, O Lord, who could stand? But with you there is forgiveness; therefore you are feared” (verses 3-4). The composer concludes: “O Israel, put your hope in the Lord, for with the Lord is unfailing love and with him is full redemption. He himself will redeem Israel from all their sins” (verses 7-8).
Songs of Ascents: Psalms 120-134
These 15 psalms are each titled “A Song of Ascents” [Hebrew: shir hamma’aloth]. We do not know precisely what this term means. Mitchell Dahood writes: “[This term] has been explained by some as a ‘Pilgrim Song’ sung by pilgrims as they ‘went up’ to Jerusalem for the great annual feasts. Cf. Exod xxiii 17; Deut xvi 16; I Kings xii 28; Matt xx 17; Luke ii 41f. Others hold that these psalms were sung by the returning exiles when they ‘went up’ to Jerusalem from Babylon” (Psalms III: 101 – 150, The Anchor Bible, vol. 17A, p. 195).
Later, these psalms were connected with the Feast of Tabernacles in Jerusalem. At the water-drawing ceremony there, the Levites stood “upon the fifteen steps leading down from the court of the Israelites to the Women’s Court, corresponding to The Fifteen Songs of Ascent in the Psalms; upon them the Levites used to stand with musical instruments and sing hymns” (The Mishnah, Sukkah 5.4). The Feast of Tabernacles commemorated Israel’s period of wandering in the wilderness. As part of their observance, families built small booths (sukkoth) in the streets and on the rooftops and shaded them with palm and willow branches and other greenery. The Hebrews lived in these booths during the week of the Feast.
Jerusalem (Zion) is prominently mentioned in these psalms: “Our feet are standing in your gates, O Jerusalem” (Psalm 122:2); “Those who trust in the Lord are like Mount Zion” (Psalm 125:1); “When the Lord brought back the captives to Zion, we were like men who dreamed” (Psalm 126:1); “May the Lord bless you from Zion all the days of your life” (Psalm 128:5); “May all who hate Zion be turned back in shame” (Psalm 129:5); and “The Lord has chosen Zion, he has desired it for his dwelling” (Psalm 132:13).
Peace is an important concept in the Songs of Ascents. Two psalms end with the blessing: “Peace [shalom] be upon Israel” (Psalm 125:5; 128:6). Psalm 122 is a prayer for the peace of Jerusalem. The apostle Paul later gave a similar blessing to the church: “Peace and mercy to all who follow this rule, even to the Israel of God” (Galatians 6:16).
God’s protection is another theme of these psalms: “The Lord will watch over your coming and going both now and forevermore” (Psalm 121:8); “As the mountains surround Jerusalem, so the Lord surrounds his people both now and forevermore” (Psalm 125:2) and “Unless the Lord watches over the city, the watchmen stand guard in vain” (Psalm 127:1).

The pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the festival seasons were important events in the lives of the ancient Hebrews, serving to remind the people of their covenant relationship with God.
Two consecutive psalms mention the blessing of children: “Sons are a heritage from the Lord, children a reward from him. Like arrows in the hands of a warrior are sons born in one’s youth. Blessed is the man whose quiver is full of them” (Psalm 127:3-5) and “Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your sons will be like olive shoots around your table” (Psalm 128:3).
The Songs of Ascents are short: They average about seven verses, whereas in Psalms as a whole, the average psalm length is about 16 verses. But for all their brevity, they are profoundly inspirational. The returning exiles sang: “Restore our fortunes, O Lord, like streams in the Negev. Those who sow in tears will reap with songs of joy. He who goes out weeping, carrying seed to sow, will return with songs of joy, carrying sheaves with him” (Psalm 126:4-6). The last verse became the basis of the famous Protestant hymn “Bringing in the Sheaves.” Similarly, a popular Hebrew folk song is based on Psalm 133:1, which proclaims: “How good and pleasant it is when brothers live together in unity!”
Psalm 134 provides a fitting conclusion to this collection: “Praise the Lord, all you servants of the Lord who minister by night in the house of the Lord. Lift up your hands in the sanctuary and praise the Lord. May the Lord, the Maker of heaven and earth, bless you from Zion” (verses 1-3).
Hallelujah Psalms: Psalms 146-150
The last five psalms begin and end with the phrase “Praise the Lord” (hallelujah). Some scholars consider the previous psalm to end in a doxology concluding the fifth book of the Psalms: “Let every creature praise his holy name for ever and ever” (Psalm 145:21). The last five psalms would then form an epilogue to the Psalter as a whole, corresponding in number to the five books of the Psalms.
All these hallelujah psalms are hymns of praise. Psalm 146 praises the God who “upholds the cause of the oppressed and gives food to the hungry. The Lord sets prisoners free, the Lord gives sight to the blind, the Lord lifts up those who are bowed down, the Lord loves the righteous. The Lord watches over the alien and sustains the fatherless and the widow” (verses 7-9). The next psalm exults in God’s omnipotence: “He sends his command to the earth; his word runs swiftly. He spreads the snow like wool and scatters the frost like ashes” (Psalm 147:15-16).
Psalm 148 calls upon everything to praise God: “Praise him, all his angels, praise him, all his heavenly hosts. Praise him, sun and moon, praise him, all you shining stars” (verses 2-3). Psalm 149 emphasizes that God’s people have particular reason to praise their Creator: “Let them praise his name with dancing and make music to him with tambourine and harp. For the Lord takes delight in his people; he crowns the humble with salvation. Let the saints rejoice in this honor and sing for joy on their beds” (verses 3-5).
Psalm 150 brings to climactic conclusion this fanfare of praise. This last psalm is a doxology for the whole Psalter, for all five books of the Psalms. After the initial “Praise the Lord,” it gives 10 commands in climactic parallelism to praise God in different ways and with a variety of musical instruments (verses 1-5). Then comes the majestic finale, in which the congregation sings, “Let everything that has breath praise the Lord. Praise the Lord” (verse 6).
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Psalms in the New Testament
The book of Psalms had an immense influence on New Testament writers. They have many quotes from several Old Testament books, but none more so than from Psalms. From the Psalms, they drew on the wealth of material that God had inspired pertaining to Jesus Christ.
When Peter and John had been ordered (unsuccessfully) by the Sanhedrin not to preach Jesus Christ, the just-started New Testament church prayed to God for the continuing boldness of the apostles. In their prayer, they quoted Psalm 2:1-2 and applied it as a prophecy of what had happened to Jesus Christ.
The psalm speaks about the nations conspiring and the people plotting vain things, and about kings and rulers gathering together against the Lord and his anointed. The church cried to God, “Indeed Herod and Pontius Pilate met together with the Gentiles and the people of Israel in this city to conspire against your holy servant Jesus, whom you anointed” (Acts 4:27).
Those who had witnessed the life of Jesus and had been convicted of his teachings saw that the second Psalm applied to Jesus as the anointed, the Messiah. The word Christ is a title meaning “anointed”; Jesus was the Christ, the Anointed One.
Viewing the second Psalm in the light of Jesus’ life, the New Testament writers understood verse 7 as a reference to Jesus as the Son of God. In both Acts and Hebrews, the saying, “You are my Son; today I have become your Father,” is applied to Jesus as the Son of God (Acts 13:33; Hebrews 5:5).
The followers of Jesus noticed that several psalms predicted events in Jesus’ life. Such psalms became known as “messianic psalms.”
Psalm 22 is a typical messianic psalm. Matthew and Mark record Christ’s agonizing plea from the cross: “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46; Mark 15:34). These words were the beginning of one of David’s psalms (Psalm 22:1). The New Testament writers understood that David’s words concerning his own situation applied even more fully to Christ’s suffering. In addition to the direct quotations, there are numerous allusions to this psalm in the New Testament.
For example, David said: “All who see me mock me; they hurl insults, shaking their heads: ‘He trusts in the Lord; let the Lord rescue him. Let him deliver him, since he delights in him’” (verses 7-8). Matthew, Mark and Luke record the actions of Christ’s enemies: mocking him, shaking their heads at him and telling him to save himself, since he claimed to be the Son of God (Matthew 27:39-44; Mark 15:29-32; Luke 23:35-39).
One striking example of how David’s words applied to Jesus Christ is Psalm 22:18, which says, “They divide my garments among them and cast lots for my clothing.” The apostle John showed how this prophecy was fulfilled by the soldiers who divided Christ’s clothes into four parts and cast lots for his tunic (John 19:23-24).
Psalm 69 is another messianic psalm. Jesus Christ himself said he was hated without a cause, “but this is to fulfill what is written in their Law: ‘They hated me without reason’” (John 15:25). Christ was referring to Psalm 69:4.
When one rereads this psalm in light of the events in Christ’s life, it is obvious that several other verses apply to Christ, even if not quoted in the New Testament. For example: “I endure scorn for your sake, and shame covers my face. I am a stranger to my brothers, an alien to my own mother’s sons” (verses 7-8).
When Jesus cast the money changers from the temple, saying, “How dare you turn my Father’s house into a market!” (John 2:16), his disciples remembered the scripture (Psalm 69:9) where it was written, “Zeal for your house will consume me” (John 2:17).
Other messianic psalms include Psalms 110 and 118. These psalms, like many other parts of the Old Testament in which there are prophecies concerning Christ’s first coming, were used by the apostles and evangelists as they preached the gospel.
Psalms in Praise and Worship
The Psalms are not only of historical interest in understanding how the ancient Israelites worshiped God — they greatly influenced the New Testament church in how it worshiped and praised God and his Son, Jesus Christ. Moreover, the legacy of the Psalms continues to influence worship services in the church today.
Jesus told his disciples, “Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (Luke 24:44). The apostles were thoroughly familiar with the book of Psalms and quoted from it frequently. Of the 263 times the Old Testament is quoted by the New Testament writers, 116 quotations are from Psalms.
Even when not directly quoting the Psalms, the apostles and evangelists were often influenced by them in the expressions they used. Ralph P. Martin tells us that the early church, like Jesus himself, “turned to the Psalms for language in which to express their deepest emotions” (“Worship,” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 4, p. 1125).
Undoubtedly, the early church created psalms in which they praised Jesus Christ. Donald Guthrie notes, “Many scholars have considered that Philippians 2:6-11 and Colossians 1:15-20 were originally hymns which had been composed and used before being incorporated into the respective epistles” (New Testament Theology, p. 343). Other hymns of the early church may have included 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:1-3 and 1 Peter 3:18-22.
The Psalms had been central to the Jews’ worship of God for centuries, providing the inspiration for their prayer patterns. These prayer patterns, in turn, were used by the early Christian communities. David E. Aune writes: “The Jewish hodayah (‘thanksgiving’) pattern of prayer, which characteristically began with the phrase ‘I/we thank you,’ is frequently found in the NT and early Christian literature (Luke 2:38; Heb 13:15; Rev 11:17-18). This type of prayer is also frequently used [by] Paul to introduce petitions and intercessions (Rom 1:8; cf. Phil 4:6; Col 4:2; 1 Thess 5:16-18)” (“Early Christian Worship,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 6, p. 980).
As you read the epistles, you will come across sayings based on the doxologies in the Psalms. A doxology is an ascription of praise to God by the congregation. For example, Psalm 72 concludes: “Praise be to the Lord God, the God of Israel, who alone does marvelous deeds. Praise be to his glorious name forever; may the whole earth be filled with his glory. Amen and Amen” (verses 18-19; see also Psalm 41:13; 89:52; 106:48). A typical Christian doxology similarly attributes various characteristics — especially glory — to God and/or Christ, and includes phrases such as “forever” or “for ever and ever.” It usually concludes with an “Amen.”
Here are some examples of doxologies in Paul’s writings: 
* “Now to the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory for ever and ever. Amen” (1 Timothy 1:17).
* “For from him [God] and through him and to him are all things. To him be the glory forever! Amen” (Romans 11:36).
* “To the only wise God be glory forever through Jesus Christ! Amen” (Romans 16:27).
Other New Testament writers also used this format:
* “To him [Jesus Christ] be glory both now and forever! Amen” (2 Peter 3:18).
* “To the only God our Savior be glory, majesty, power and authority, through Jesus Christ our Lord, before all ages, now and forevermore! Amen” (Jude 25).
* “To him who sits on the throne and to the Lamb [Jesus Christ] be praise and honor and glory and power, for ever and ever!” (Revelation 5:13).
Another area in which the Psalms have continued to influence Christian worship throughout the centuries is that of congregational singing. In the sixth century, when Benedict set up a monastic order, he commanded the monks to chant all 150 psalms each week. A thousand years later, Martin Luther established a church hymnal in the language of the people. He wrote a number of hymns himself, the most famous being “Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott” (“A Mighty Fortress Is Our God”), which is based on Psalm 46. And Psalm 23, in its numerous arrangements, remains a long-lasting favorite in many denominations.
Paul’s encouragement to the New Testament church, “Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly as you teach and admonish one another with all wisdom, and as you sing psalms, hymns and spiritual songs with gratitude in your hearts to God” (Colossians 3:16), is as important today as ever. During the song service, a congregation offers its praise to God and strengthens its relationship with Jesus Christ. Singing psalms, hymns and spiritual songs helps unify the congregation in an inspirational endeavor that draws it closer together as the Body of Christ.
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Exploring Proverbs
What’s in a name?
In the Hebrew Bible, this book begins with the words Mishlei Shelomoh Bhen-Dawid, meaning “Proverbs of Solomon son of David.” The Hebrew title for the book is simply Mishlei, meaning “Proverbs,” which is the title in English Bibles.
Outline
Proverbs begins with a prologue (1:1-7) that gives the purpose of the book: to impart wisdom. Then follows a series of speeches concerning wisdom (1:8–9:18). After that, there is little story flow, even within an individual chapter. However, there are several separate collections of proverbs:
* The “proverbs of Solomon” (10:1–22:16).
* “Sayings of the wise” (22:17–24:22).
* Further “sayings of the wise” (24:23-34).
* “More proverbs of Solomon” (25:1–29:27).
* The “sayings of Agur son of Jakeh” (30:1-33).
* The “sayings of King Lemuel” (31:1-9).
* The book concludes with an acrostic poem praising the virtues of a noble wife (31:10-31).
How to read this book
Proverbs is the foremost book in what is known as wisdom literature. Wisdom literature does not place primary emphasis on such topics as repentance, grace, mercy, love, faith, prayer, eternal life or similar subjects regarding salvation. Wisdom literature contains sound advice of practical use in day-to-day life.
In Proverbs, we find two common ways that wisdom is expressed: the saying and the instruction. Most sayings are just one verse long. For example: “A wise son brings joy to his father, but a foolish son grief to his mother” (10:1) or “A generous man will himself be blessed, for he shares his food with the poor” (22:9). These sayings are not laws. As Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton write, “The truisms of Proverbs are not absolute promises, but general principles based on careful observation of the human experience” (A Survey of the Old Testament, p. 290).
An instruction might extend over an entire chapter — chapter 7, for example — or it may only be one or two verses long. Instructions can provide positive direction, such as: “Honor the Lord with your wealth, with the firstfruits of all your crops; then your barns will be filled to overflowing, and your vats will brim over with new wine” (3:9-10). Or they can be prohibitions, such as: “Do not gloat when your enemy falls; when he stumbles, do not let your heart rejoice, or the Lord will see and disapprove and turn his wrath away from him” (24:17-18).
Learning about God
Since the primary concern in Proverbs is not theological, the book does not speak much about God. Nevertheless, Proverbs emphasizes that wisdom and knowledge are grounded in respect for God. Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., comments: “The fear of the Lord was the dominating concept and organizing theological principle in wisdom literature. It was the response of faith to the divine word of promise and blessing just as it had functioned in the days of Abraham and Moses” (Toward an Old Testament Theology, p. 170).
Other topics
Proverbs addresses many vital subjects, but the information on any one topic is scattered throughout the book. Otto Eissfeldt writes, “The contents of the sayings and wisdom poems which make up the book...cover the whole realm of life in all its vicissitudes — government and civil life, trade and justice, crafts and agriculture, family and slaves, work and holiday, joy and sorrow” (The Old Testament: An Introduction, p. 476).
What this book means for you
The principles encapsulated in Proverbs apply to all people. As Abraham Cohen explains: “No passage is addressed exclusively to the Hebrew. The tone of the Book is strikingly universalistic throughout.... Its teaching is applicable to all men everywhere and is true of life generally and not of any particular people or land” (Proverbs, Soncino Books of the Bible, p. xiv). Proverbs is the handbook of practical living, valid for all ages.
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Proverbs: Words of Wisdom
Purpose: Proverbs 1:1-6
Solomon’s wisdom exceeded that of everyone before him. The book of Proverbs is a remarkable distillation of that wisdom. Its purpose is clear: “For attaining wisdom and discipline; for understanding words of insight; for acquiring a disciplined and prudent life, doing what is right and just and fair; for giving prudence to the simple, knowledge and discretion to the young” (verses 2-4).
Wisdom speaks: Proverbs 1:7-33
Proverbs is written from the standpoint of a father instructing his son. It contains many instructions on avoiding immoral women and on living happily with a wife. Even wisdom (Hebrew: chokhmah) and folly (kesiluth) are personified as women. Of course, the principles conveyed — avoiding immorality, deriving enjoyment from your marriage, seeking wisdom and spurning folly — apply equally to men and women.
Solomon first warns against falling prey to the enticement of sinners (verses 10-19). No matter how alluring the life of the criminal looks, its end is a violent death: “These men lie in wait for their own blood; they waylay only themselves! Such is the end of all who go after ill-gotten gain” (verses 18-19).
Then Solomon portrays wisdom as a woman speaking in the street. In a parallel structure, wisdom twice reproaches the foolish for not listening to her (verses 24-25, 29-30) and then announces their consequent doom (verses 26-28, 31-32).
A poem to wisdom: Proverbs 2
This Proverbs is an intricately structured alphabetizing poem, 22 lines in length to correspond with the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. After the introductory address, “ My son,” the poem is divided into six stanzas: verses 1-4, 5-8, 9-11, 12-15, 16-19 and 20-22. The first three stanzas begin with aleph, the first letter of the alphabet; the last three begin with lamed, the letter that starts the second half of the alphabet.
Moreover, the first lines of each of these stanzas summarize the poem: “If you accept my words…then you will understand the fear of the Lord…. Then you will understand what is right and just…. Wisdom will save you from the ways of wicked men…. It will save you also from the adulteress…. Thus you will walk in the ways of good men” (verses 1, 5, 9, 12, 16, 20). This sort of formal structure is typical of wisdom literature and serves a practical purpose: It makes the point — that wisdom is invaluable — easier to remember.
A code of ethics: Proverbs 3
Solomon now gives a series of commands, each two verses long, about honoring and trusting God and about love and faithfulness (verses 1-12). Then follows another hymn praising the virtues of wisdom (verses 13-24). Wisdom’s value is so high that “she is more profitable than silver and yields better returns than gold” (verse 14).
The Proverbs also contains a series of prohibitions (verses 27-32) against harming one’s neighbor. These ethical teachings go far beyond the literal demands of the law: “Do not withhold good from those who deserve it, when it is in your power to act” (verse 27). This ethical principle was expounded by the apostle James: “Anyone, then, who knows the good he ought to do and doesn’t do it, sins” (James 4:17). The book of Proverbs does more than give sound advice — it teaches a way of life.
Get wisdom: Proverbs 4
Solomon tells how his father, David, encouraged him to seek wisdom when he was a young boy (verses 1-9). He again stresses: “Wisdom is supreme; therefore get wisdom. Though it cost all you have, get understanding” (verse 7). Then Solomon contrasts the way of wisdom with the way of the wicked (verses 11-19). He encourages his son to keep his words with all of his being (verses 20-27).
Do not commit adultery: Proverbs 5
This Proverbs is an intentionally graphic poem, warning against adultery. Its metaphors strike home: “For the lips of an adulteress drip honey, and her speech is smoother than oil; but in the end she is bitter as gall, sharp as a double-edged sword” (verses 3-4). Description and implicit warning turn to explicit prohibition: “Keep to a path far from her, do not go near the door of her house” (verse 8). The apostle Paul later commanded: “Flee from sexual immorality” (1 Corinthians 6:18). This principle applies to every aspect of life: Get as far away from sin as possible.
The poem also gives positive instruction: “Rejoice in the wife of your youth.... May her breasts satisfy you always, may you ever be captivated by her love” (Proverbs 5:18-19). God intended a husband and wife to find enjoyment in each other. We will later expound this theme in our commentary on the Song of Songs.
Introducing major themes: Proverbs 6:1-19
Three short passages introduce themes that are developed further in the later part of the book: the foolishness of being surety for a friend (verses 1-5), the folly of laziness (verses 6-11) and the hatred God has for evil (verses 12-19). The last point is illustrated as a list of seven things that are detestable to God: “Haughty eyes, a lying tongue, hands that shed innocent blood, a heart that devises wicked schemes, feet that are quick to rush into evil, a false witness who pours out lies and a man who stirs up dissension among brothers” (verses 17-19). Notice that three of these involve use of the tongue — another important theme.
Warnings against adultery: Proverbs 6:20-7:27
Solomon likens sleeping with another man’s wife to scooping fire into one’s lap or walking on hot coals (Proverbs 6:27-29). A starving thief might be pitied, but a man who has committed adultery will not be shown any mercy by a jealous husband (verses 30-35).
Proverbs 7 is another long poem warning against adultery. This poem uses an envelope structure — it begins and ends by exhorting the young man to hear his father’s instruction (Proverbs 7:1-5, 24-27). In between, Solomon describes how an immoral woman plies her craft: “I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes and cinnamon. Come, let’s drink deep of love till morning; let’s enjoy ourselves with love! My husband is not at home; he has gone on a long journey” (verses 17-19). Again, the result of immorality is vividly portrayed: “With persuasive words she led him astray; she seduced him with her smooth talk. All at once he followed her like an ox going to the slaughter” (verses 21-22).
Wisdom calls out again: Proverbs 8
In another chapter-length poem, Solomon again personifies wisdom as a woman proclaiming truth to those who would listen. Wisdom here makes some dramatic claims: “By me kings reign and rulers make laws that are just; by me princes govern, and all nobles who rule on earth.... The Lord brought me forth as the first of his works, before his deeds of old; I was appointed from eternity, from the beginning, before the world began” (verses 15-16, 22-23).
Wisdom and folly: Proverbs 9
Solomon now personifies both wisdom and folly. First, wisdom prepares a feast of meat and wine on a furnished table served by maids for all people who are willing to forsake folly and go in the way of understanding (verses 1-6). Folly offers her followers a short-cut: “Stolen water is sweet; food eaten in secret is delicious!” (verse 17). Yet this shortcut leads to death (verse 18). Notice also that folly can offer only bread and water, but wisdom offers meat and wine. There is ultimately far more satisfaction in going the right way.

Major themes of Proverbs 10-29
We do not have enough space to discuss all the diverse subjects contained in these chapters, so we will limit ourselves to several of the more frequently mentioned topics.
We begin with a piece of sound financial advice that is often ignored: “He who puts up security for another will surely suffer” (11:15). If you guarantee to pay if someone else defaults on a financial agreement, be prepared to kiss that money good-bye. And if you do this on behalf of a stranger, then you have only your own folly to blame when things go wrong. As two of the proverbs say, “Take the garment of one who puts up security for a stranger” (20:16; 27:13).
This does not mean that it is wrong to be surety for a friend, but it is risky. It is better to consider it a gift. If you are co-signer on a loan, you are taking chances. Judah offered himself as surety for his brother Benjamin (Genesis 43:8-9). He later offered to become Joseph’s slave in an attempt to ensure Benjamin’s safe return (Genesis 44:32-33). These courageous actions resulted in the joyous reunion of Joseph with Judah and the rest of his brothers. This example illustrates that the proverbs are not absolute laws, but wise instructions and general principles.
Respect for God
This theme occurs right from the beginning of the book: “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge” (1:7). Both knowledge and wisdom are intimately connected with a respectful fear of God: “The fear of the Lord teaches a man wisdom” (15:33); and “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and knowledge of the Holy One is understanding” (9:10).
Fearing God leads to the godly attribute of hating evil: “Fear the Lord and shun evil” (3:7); “To fear the Lord is to hate evil; I hate pride and arrogance, evil behavior and perverse speech” (8:13); and “Through the fear of the Lord a man avoids evil” (16:6).
Those who fear God do not need to fear any human: “He who fears the Lord has a secure fortress, and for his children it will be a refuge. The fear of the Lord is a fountain of life” (14:26-27). Fearing God is to be preferred to having great wealth with trouble (15:16) because “the fear of the Lord leads to life: Then one rests content, untouched by trouble” (19:23) and “humility and the fear of the Lord bring wealth and honor and life” (22:4).
The value of wisdom
In addition to being the major theme of the first nine chapters, the value of wisdom is discussed throughout the rest of the book. Solomon writes, “How much better to get wisdom than gold, to choose understanding rather than silver!” (16:16). In fact, seeking wisdom is wise: “He who gets wisdom loves his own soul; he who cherishes understanding prospers” (19:8).
The value of work
Another theme introduced earlier is the certainty of the sluggard, or lazy person, ending in poverty 6:6-11). Many proverbs repeat this message: “Lazy hands make a man poor, but diligent hands bring wealth” (10:4); “A sluggard does not plow in season; so at harvest time he looks but finds nothing” (20:4) and “The sluggard’s craving will be the death of him” (21:25).
Two longer passages reinforce this point. One shows that sluggards will find the most outrageous excuse not to work and cannot be convinced of their folly (26:13-16). The other describes the property of the sluggard — broken down and overgrown with weeds and thorns — and warns that lack of diligence inevitably results in poverty (24:30-34).
Conversely, the diligent thrive: “The sluggard craves and gets nothing, but the desires of the diligent are fully satisfied” (13:4); “He who works his land will have abundant food” (12:11); “All hard work brings a profit” (14:23); “The plans of the diligent lead to profit as surely as haste leads to poverty” (21:5); and “Do you see a man skilled in his work? He will serve before kings” (22:29). The apostle Paul also understood the value of work: “If a man will not work, he shall not eat” (2 Thessalonians 3:10).
Wealth and poverty
Proverbs has much to say about riches and poverty. Even though wisdom, understanding and knowledge are far more precious than wealth (8:10, 19; 16:16), riches do have value: “The wealth of the rich is their fortified city, but poverty is the ruin of the poor” (10:15); and “The rich rule over the poor, and the borrower is servant to the lender” (22:7).
Money is a power, and it can be put to good use. However, the rich must not become so engrossed with material wealth that they neglect their spiritual responsibilities. In the end, it is not riches but righteousness that is important (11:4). Of course, like everyone else, the rich must meet material obligations to God: “Honor the Lord with your wealth, with the firstfruits of all your crops” (3:9). They should also remember the poor: “He who gives to the poor will lack nothing, but he who closes his eyes to them receives many curses” (28:27).
The proverbs are therefore in agreement with the law — human beings should love God (Deuteronomy 6:5) and neighbor (Leviticus 19:18). The proverbs stress that the most important thing in life is not wealth but one’s relationship with God: “Rich and poor have this in common: The Lord is the Maker of them all” (22:2); and “Wealth is worthless in the day of wrath, but righteousness delivers from death” (11:4).
Correction and reproof
The book of Proverbs has stern warnings for scorners and scoffers who refuse to accept rebukes: “A wise son heeds his father’s instruction, but a mocker does not listen to rebuke” (13:1); and “A mocker resents correction; he will not consult the wise” (15:12). Scorners are those fools who mock at making amends for sin (14:9), make light of justice (19:28) and are proud and arrogant (21:24). The wise person will drive out the mocker, and strife will cease as a result (22:10). In the end, “penalties are prepared for mockers, and beatings for the backs of fools” (19:29).
Rebuke, or reproof, is a theme dealt with extensively throughout Proverbs. The Hebrew word for reproof, tokhachath, is used 16 times in Proverbs and only eight times in the rest of the Old Testament. Wisdom despairs at those who refuse her rebuke (1:25, 30). Those who ignore correction lead others astray (10:17) and are stupid (12:1). In addition, those who hate correction will die (15:10).
On the other hand, those who heed correction are prudent (15:5). They shall gain understanding (15:32) and be honored (13:18).
The other side of the coin is instruction. The Hebrew word for instruction, musar, occurs 30 times in Proverbs and only 20 times in the rest of the Old Testament. A wise person will listen to the instruction of both parents: “Listen, my son, to your father’s instruction and do not forsake your mother’s teaching” (1:8).
Instruction is more precious than silver (8:10) and is the way to wisdom: “Listen to my instruction and be wise” (8:33); and “Listen to advice and accept instruction, and in the end you will be wise” (19:20). Instruction leads to life: “He who heeds discipline shows the way to life” (10:17). Correction and instruction are part of a Christian’s life. We must learn to accept correction when we are at fault. We must also continually receive instruction as to how we can better live God’s way of life.
Gossip and talebearing
Slanderous words are quickly believed by people who listen to talebearers. Such words do not just make a superficial impression — they corrupt the innermost being of the listener. Whereas, “without gossip a quarrel dies down” (26:20), a talebearer causes strife. Simply put, “A gossip betrays a confidence, but a trustworthy man keeps a secret” (11:13).
Specifically, we should not make other people’s sins public knowledge: “He who covers over an offense promotes love, but whoever repeats the matter separates close friends” (17:9). How much grief has been caused by not applying this one basic principle! God tells us to avoid talebearers and gossips: “A gossip betrays a confidence; so avoid a man who talks too much” (20:19).
Using the tongue
Lying is condemned in no uncertain terms: “Truthful lips endure forever, but a lying tongue lasts only a moment” (12:19); “The Lord detests lying lips, but he delights in men who are truthful” (12:22); and “Like a club or a sword or a sharp arrow is the man who gives false testimony against his neighbor” (25:18).
Nor are we to boast about our achievements: “Let another praise you, and not your own mouth; someone else, and not your own lips” (27:2). Often, the best course of action is to keep silent: “When words are many, sin is not absent, but he who holds his tongue is wise” (10:19); “Even a fool is thought wise if he keeps silent” (17:28); and “A fool gives full vent to his anger, but a wise man keeps himself under control” (29:11). Proverbs emphasizes that “an evil man is trapped by his sinful talk” (12:13) and “a fool’s mouth is his undoing, and his lips are a snare to his soul” (18:7).
Using the tongue
We can use the tongue positively, however. All those who give righteous instruction are commended: “The lips of the righteous nourish many” (10:21); “Kings take pleasure in honest lips” (16:13); and “A word aptly spoken is like apples of gold in settings of silver” (25:11). However, the righteous will rebuke, if necessary, rather than flatter a person (28:23).
Throughout the book of Proverbs, the words of the righteous and the wicked are contrasted: “The mouth of the righteous is a fountain of life, but violence overwhelms the mouth of the wicked” (10:11); “The tongue of the righteous is choice silver, but the heart of the wicked is of little value” (10:20); “Reckless words pierce like a sword, but the tongue of the wise brings healing” (12:18); “The tongue of the wise commends knowledge, but the mouth of the fool gushes folly” (15:2); and “The Lord detests the thoughts of the wicked, but those of the pure are pleasing to him” (15:26). In short, “the tongue has the power of life and death” (18:21).
The sayings of Agur: Proverbs 30
Chapter 30 of Proverbs contains the sayings of Agur, the son of Jakeh. We know nothing else about this man, but the wisdom within this chapter shows him to be an unusually astute observer of life.
He summed up the proverbs on riches and poverty by saying: “Give me neither poverty nor riches, but give me only my daily bread. Otherwise, I may have too much and disown you and say, ‘Who is the Lord?’ Or I may become poor and steal, and so dishonor the name of my God” (verses 8-9).
A number of Agur’s proverbs are organized into sets of four observations. He notes that four things are never satisfied: “the grave, the barren womb, land, which is never satisfied with water, and fire, which never says, ‘Enough!’” (verse 16). He also identifies four things that the earth cannot bear: “a servant who becomes king, a fool who is full of food, an unloved woman who is married, and a maidservant who displaces her mistress” (verses 22-23).
Four things Agur mentions as too amazing for him to understand: “the way of an eagle in the sky, the way of a snake on a rock, the way of a ship on the high seas, and the way of a man with a maiden” (verse 19). And four things Agur observed as moving with stately bearing: “a lion, mighty among beasts, who retreats before nothing; a strutting rooster, a he-goat, and a king with his army around him” (verses 30-31).
These sayings have a “there are three, no there are four” type structure, which puts the emphasis on the last item. For example, Agur’s real fascination is in regard to “the way of a man with a maiden”; and his real admiration is for a king at the head of his army.
The sayings of Lemuel: Proverbs 31:1-9
King Lemuel may have come from the kingdom of Massa in northern Arabia. The Hebrew word translated “oracle” in Proverbs 30:1 and 31:1 is massa’, which some scholars translate as the place Massa. Proverbs 31:1-9 contains a mother’s advice about the responsibilities of a monarch.
In two short sentences, Lemuel’s mother enunciates one of the king’s most important duties: “Speak up for those who cannot speak for themselves, for the rights of all who are destitute. Speak up and judge fairly; defend the rights of the poor and needy” (verses 8-9). If the kings of Israel and Judah had applied this one principle, God would not have needed to send prophet after prophet to denounce the gross injustices perpetuated in those nations.
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The Numbers Game
Some people insist on forcing contrived numerical patterns into the biblical text, which lead to spectacular, but unwarranted, conclusions. Such methods should not be used to establish doctrines, personal or church traditions, or to calculate precise dates for the future fulfillment of prophetic events. Nevertheless, the Hebrews did use alphabetical and numerical patterns for structural purposes, and discovering those patterns will help us to appreciate the skill with which they imparted their wisdom.
In several ancient Near Eastern languages, words and letters had numerical value. An inscription of King Sargon II (727-707 B.C.) states that the king built the wall of Khorsabad 16,283 cubits long to correspond with the numerical value of his name. This type of using words as numbers is known as gematria, from the Greek word geo-metria.
Gematria also occurs in Hebrew wisdom literature. For example, there are precisely 375 proverbs in the collection of “The proverbs of Solomon” (Proverbs 10:1–22:16). In Hebrew, the name of Solomon consists of four letters: SH, L, M and H. The numerical value of this name is 300 + 30 + 40 + 5 = 375. According to 1 Kings 4:32, Solomon spoke 3,000 proverbs. It would seem that Solomon, or someone else later, deliberately made a collection of 375 of the Solomonic proverbs to correspond to the numerical value of Solomon’s name. In both the wall at Khorsabad and the collection of proverbs, the use of gematria places a “personal stamp” upon the work.
There is a similar phenomenon in the book of Ecclesiastes. The main text of Ecclesiastes, ending at Ecclesiastes 12:8, is 216 verses long (followed by a six-verse epilogue). In the Hebrew Bible, the first word in the book — dibhrei, meaning “the words” — has a numerical value of 216.
Moreover, the opening statement of Ecclesiastes — habhel habhalim hakkol habhel, translated “Meaningless! Meaningless!... Everything is meaningless” in the NIV — also has a numerical value of 216. This statement of purpose is found in Ecclesiastes 1:2 and 12:8, at the beginning and the end of the main text. So the numerical values of both the thesis statement and the first word of Ecclesiastes correspond to the number of verses in the main text.
Addison G. Wright — working with another expert on wisdom literature, Patrick Skehan — elaborated on this material in “The Riddle of the Sphinx Revisited: Numerical Patterns in the Book of Qoheleth,” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, vol. 42, 1980, pp. 38-51. From these patterns, and from other evidence based on the analysis of key phrases, Dr. Wright suggests that the epilogue was deliberately written six verses long to form a book of two parts, each part being 111 verses long. According to Dr. Wright, the first part of Ecclesiastes ends with the eighth and final occurrence of the phrase “vanity and grasping for the wind” (Ecclesiastes 6:9, NKJV). There are 111 verses from Ecclesiastes 1:1–6:9.
Historically, many interpreters have used gematria irresponsibly to invent fanciful interpretations foreign to the text. But even though we should be skeptical concerning claims of numerical patterns, this does not mean they can be dismissed without examination. But numerical details are usually matters of artistic appreciation, not of secret meanings hidden in the text.
Concerning Dr. Wright’s analysis referred to above, Roland E. Murphy states:
While numerical patterns are usually associated with arbitrary flights of fantasy, it should be noted that the above observations are relatively sober, and deal with key phrases and verses. Second, the likelihood that the verbal and numerical patterns are merely coincidental is minimal, since the observations reinforce each other. Third, the numerical patterns are in a different line of reasoning altogether from the literary analysis indicated by the repetition of key phrases in many instances, and yet they lend confirmation to it. Finally, this formal structural analysis, whatever imperfections it may have, is in general harmony with many logical analyses of the book. (Ecclesiastes, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 23A, p. xxxix).
The Hebrews delighted in using artificial devices, such as acrostics or alphabetizing poems, as a way of imposing additional structure in their wisdom literature. We should not, therefore, be surprised to find that they also used numerical patterns for similar purposes. Unlike the fanciful numerical theories of certain interpreters, the numerical patterns discovered by scholars such as Skehan and Wright do not lead to finding some strange “hidden meaning” in the text. But these patterns should give us a deeper appreciation of how the text was written.
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Exploring Ecclesiastes

Solomon boasted: “I undertook great projects: I built houses for myself and planted vineyards. I made gardens and parks and planted all kinds of fruit trees in them” (Ecclesiastes 2:4-5). 
What’s in a name?
The book begins, “The words of the Teacher [Hebrew: Qoheleth]” (1:1). In the Greek Old Testament, the word translated “teacher” is Ekklesiastes, from which the English title for the book is derived. The Hebrew title is Qoheleth, which probably means “one who calls together an assembly” or “one who addresses an assembly.” Qoheleth is usually translated as “the Preacher” or “the Teacher.”
Who was Qoheleth? Roy B. Zuck writes: “Some scholars argue that the anonymous author [Qoheleth] called himself ‘son of David, king in Jerusalem’ (1:1; cf. vv. 12, 16; 2:9) to give his book a ring of authority as having been written in the tradition of Solomonic wisdom. Others (including me), however, argue that the author is indeed Solomon” (“A Theology of the Wisdom Books and the Song of Songs,” in A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, ed. Roy B. Zuck, p. 244).
Outline
After the first two chapters, Ecclesiastes does not have an obvious story flow. Rather, it is a collection of proverbs and short passages. However, some scholars believe that the book does have a discernible structure based on form rather than content. Although not vital to understanding the book, the outline presented below — based on Addison G. Wright’s observations regarding the occurrence of key phrases (“The Riddle of the Sphinx: The Structure of the Book of Qoheleth,” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, vol. 30, 1968, pp. 313-334) — illustrates the formal details that the Hebrews delighted in when writing wisdom literature.
After a prologue concerning the profit of toil (1:1-11), the body of the book is then divided into two main parts. The first part (1:12–6:9) consists of eight sections (1:12-14; 1:15-17; 1:18–2:11; 2:12-17; 2:18-26; 3:1–4:6; 4:7-16; 5:1–6:9), each ending with a phrase such as “meaningless, a chasing after the wind.”
The second part of the body is divided into two sections. The first section (6:10–8:17) is further divided into four subsections (6:10–7:14; 7:15-24; 7:25-29; 8:1-17), each ending with a phrase such as “man cannot discover anything” or “this only have I found” [Hebrew: matsa’, translated “discover” elsewhere]. The second section is also divided into four subsections (9:1-12; 9:13–10:15; 10:16–11:2; 11:3-6), each ending with “no man knows” or a similar phrase.
The main part of the work concludes with a poem on youth and old age (11:7–12:8), which ends as the book began: “Everything is meaningless” (12:8; see 1:2). Finally, an epilogue (12:9-14) comments on the book.
How to read this book
Like the book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes is wisdom literature. Ecclesiastes acknowledges the value of wisdom: “Wisdom, like an inheritance, is a good thing and benefits those who see the sun. Wisdom is a shelter as money is a shelter, but the advantage of knowledge is this: that wisdom preserves the life of its possessor” (7:11-12).
Ecclesiastes imparts wisdom in many areas of life, including law and justice: “When the sentence for a crime is not quickly carried out, the hearts of the people are filled with schemes to do wrong” (8:11).
But the special emphasis of Ecclesiastes is relating the limits of wisdom. First, wisdom is often ignored or forgotten: “The wise man, like the fool, will not be long remembered; in days to come both will be forgotten” (2:16). Solomon remembered when a poor man saved a city by his wisdom, yet soon this man’s deeds were forgotten. Solomon concludes: “‘Wisdom is better than strength.’ But the poor man’s wisdom is despised, and his words are no longer heeded.... Wisdom is better than weapons of war, but one sinner destroys much good” (9:16, 18).
Second, wisdom cannot eliminate chance misfortune: “The race is not to the swift or the battle to the strong, nor does food come to the wise or wealth to the brilliant or favor to the learned; but time and chance happen to them all” (9:11).
But the ultimate limit of wisdom is death: “Like the fool, the wise man too must die!” (2:16). Kenneth R.R. Gros Louis writes that the “Preacher...boils everything down to two great realities, to the essentials — death and chance” (“Ecclesiastes,” in Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives, ed. Kenneth R.R. Gros Louis, p. 278). Wisdom ends at death: “In the grave, where you are going, there is neither working nor planning nor knowledge nor wisdom” (9:10).
Learning about God
“What a heavy burden God has laid on men!” (1:13). Here is a key to this book. Solomon reflected on his material possessions, seeing them as empty and unable to provide meaning to his life. Many of his musings are somewhat cynical.
Admittedly, he acknowledges God’s sovereignty: “I know that everything God does will endure forever; nothing can be added to it and nothing taken from it” (3:14). Solomon also realizes that the proper attitude toward God is awe and respect: “Guard your steps when you go to the house of God.... Stand in awe of God” (5:1, 7).
Solomon even admits: “I know that it will go better with God-fearing men, who are reverent before God. Yet because the wicked do not fear God, it will not go well with them, and their days will not lengthen like a shadow” (8:12-13). But, despite all this, Solomon is wistful that God’s gift to humans is “to find satisfaction in his toilsome labor under the sun during the few days of life God has given him” (5:18).
Solomon accuses God: “God gives a man wealth, possessions and honor, so that he lacks nothing his heart desires, but God does not enable him to enjoy them, and a stranger enjoys them instead. This is meaningless, a grievous evil” (6:2). Those who cannot see beyond themselves, even if they had the wisdom of Solomon, are bound to have a distorted view of God.
Other topics
* Friendship: There is great value in finding a true friend: “Two are better than one, because they have a good return for their work: If one falls down, his friend can help him up. But pity the man who falls and has no one to help him up!” (4:9-10). And the best friend a person can have is a loving spouse. The best a man can enjoy in this life is to “enjoy life with your wife, whom you love, all the days of this meaningless life” (9:9).
* Righteousness: The book of Proverbs emphasizes a general principle — the righteous prosper. Ecclesiastes concentrates on the exceptions to this principle: “In this meaningless life of mine I have seen both of these: a righteous man perishing in his righteousness, and a wicked man living long in his wickedness” (7:15). Solomon continues, “There is something else meaningless that occurs on earth: righteous men who get what the wicked deserve, and wicked men who get what the righteous deserve” (8:14).
* Work: Proverbs emphasizes that it is the diligent in life who prosper — laziness leads to poverty. Ecclesiastes, however, discusses work not as a means to an end, but as an end in itself. Solomon says, “My heart took delight in all my work” (2:10). He states emphatically, “A man can do nothing better than to eat and drink and find satisfaction in his work” (2:24).
Even though work brings some satisfaction, Solomon still considers it to be toil under the sun (2:11, 18) because its satisfaction is fleeting. Solomon bitterly observes: “A man may do his work with wisdom, knowledge and skill, and then he must leave all he owns to someone who has not worked for it. This too is meaningless and a great misfortune” (2:21).
What this book means for you
The Jews traditionally read Ecclesiastes at the Feast of Tabernacles. At this time of year, God’s people are commanded, “Eat the tithe of your grain, new wine and oil, and the firstborn of your herds and flocks in the presence of the Lord your God at the place he will choose as a dwelling for his Name” (Deuteronomy 14:23). The Feast of Tabernacles was a meaningful time to read Ecclesiastes, the book that tells us: “Nothing is better for a man under the sun than to eat and drink and be glad. Then joy will accompany him in his work all the days of the life God has given him under the sun” (8:15).
But the pleasures of eating and drinking ultimately satisfy no one. Several days of feasting help convince one that the physical does not satisfy. As Ecclesiastes emphasizes, death will shortly bring an end to pleasure anyway. Robert Gordis comments, “Koheleth’s insistence upon the enjoyment of life flowed from a tragic realization of the brevity of life” (Koheleth—The Man and His World, p. 93). At the Feast of Tabernacles, the Israelites were told to live in temporary accommodations (Leviticus 23:39-43). This illustrates the temporary nature of human beings.
Ecclesiastes gives a wealth of advice about how to make the most of this life. Yet an exasperated, despairing emptiness pervades the book. And, ironically, this is its greatest contribution. Ecclesiastes highlights the need we all have for something beyond anything this physical life can offer — to that which is made possible only by Jesus Christ (John 4:7-14).
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Ecclesiastes: The Voice of Experience
Thesis: chapter 1:1-2
Solomon packed more experience into one lifetime than most people dream of. He built the great temple in Jerusalem and numerous other projects. He studied and taught about many aspects of nature: animals, birds, reptiles, fish and plant life (1 Kings 4:32-34). He had 700 wives and 300 concubines. He wrote songs and spoke proverbs, many of which are preserved in the book of Proverbs. Toward the end of his life, Solomon looked back on what he had learned. He recorded his observations in what is now known as the book of Ecclesiastes.
One might expect Solomon to have been satisfied and grateful as he reflected on a life of achievement. In fact, he was frustrated and bitter. Solomon revealed his thesis in the opening statement “Everything is meaningless” (verse 2), which also occurs toward the end of the book (Ecclesiastes 12:8), forming an envelope structure. Solomon’s work expounds his view that everything is futile. This is true when we leave God out of the picture.
The cycles of nature: chapter 1:3-11
First, Solomon poses a question: “What does man gain from all his labor at which he toils under the sun?” (verse 3). Solomon believes there is none, and considers nature to be a wearisome series of cycles. David had observed the cycles of nature with wonder and joy:
“The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands. Day after day they pour forth speech; night after night they display knowledge.... In the heavens he has pitched a tent for the sun, which is like a bridegroom coming forth from his pavilion, like a champion rejoicing to run his course. It rises at one end of the heavens and makes its circuit to the other” (Psalm 19:1-6).
Solomon observes the same phenomena, but his observations are tinged with cynicism:
“The wind blows to the south and turns to the north; round and round it goes, ever returning on its course. All streams flow into the sea, yet the sea is never full. To the place the streams come from, there they return again. All things are wearisome, more than one can say. The eye never has enough of seeing, nor the ear its fill of hearing” (Ecclesiastes 1:6-8).
Where David sees a wondrous renewal, Solomon sees futility. Solomon proclaims: “What has been will be again, what has been done will be done again; there is nothing new under the sun” (verse 9).
Reflections on life
Solomon had asked what a man’s work was worth (Ecclesiastes 1:3); now he answers his question: “I have seen all the things that are done under the sun; all of them are meaningless, a chasing after the wind” (verse 14). Solomon had become the wisest person on earth. But his wisdom did not bring happiness:”For with much wisdom comes much sorrow; the more knowledge, the more grief” (verse 18).
Solomon then sought pleasure in wine, women and song. He experienced every physical sensation he could: “I denied myself nothing my eyes desired; I refused my heart no pleasure” (Ecclesiastes 2:10). But pleasure did not bring him happiness either: “Everything was meaningless, a chasing after the wind; nothing was gained under the sun” (verse 11).
Solomon knew that “wisdom is better than folly, just as light is better than darkness” (verse 13). However, being wise, he also knew that “the wise man, like the fool, will not be long remembered.... Like the fool, the wise man too must die!” (verse 16). The melancholic mood here is emphasized in Hebrew both by the meter and by the Hebrew word ‘eikh, which is an exclamation of pain or grief.
Solomon was bitter that, having had every advantage in life, he had no advantage in death. This bitterness increased until he ended up hating even life itself (verse 17).
Solomon had embarked on great building projects. The kingdom of Israel had prospered and reached its highest point during his reign. Solomon hated leaving all he had labored for to his successor, who might be a fool (verses 18-19). This he considered a great misfortune (verse 21).
However, not all of Ecclesiastes is negative. Solomon acknowledged that “a man can do nothing better than to eat and drink and find satisfaction in his work” (verse 24). He also knew that God blesses the good person but not the sinner (verse 26). But in the light of eventual death for all, Solomon viewed even this as “meaningless, a chasing after the wind” (verse 26).
Time and toil: chapters 3:1-4:6
Then follows another passage on seasons and cycles in life. Solomon observes, “There is a time for everything, and a season for every activity under heaven” (Ecclesiastes 3:1). Solomon lists how everything has its appropriate time, beginning with the issue uppermost in his mind: “a time to be born and a time to die” (verse 2).
Considering that many people find lists in the Bible quite boring, it is interesting to note that the list in verses 1-8 is one of the more commonly quoted sections of Ecclesiastes and formed the lyric for a popular song in modern times.
Solomon asks again, “What does the worker gain from his toil?” (verse 9). This question introduces another passage on work. Solomon repeats what he has said before: People should enjoy their labor, their God-given task, and should eat, drink and enjoy themselves (verses 10-13). But only God’s works last forever (verse 14).
From discussing the fleeting nature of human works, Solomon proceeds to claim that humanity is eventually no better than the animals: “Man has no advantage over the animal. Everything is meaningless. All go to the same place; all come from dust, and to dust all return” (verses 19-20). Not only are the wise and the foolish equal in death, but so are people and animals!
Since death is the eventual end for all, Solomon concludes that there is nothing better for people than to rejoice in their work, in their brief portion of life (verse 22).
Solomon had observed oppression and injustice and made this bitter conclusion: “I declared that the dead, who had already died, are happier than the living, who are still alive. But better than both is he who has not yet been, who has not seen the evil that is done under the sun” (Ecclesiastes 4:2-3). In this cynical mood, he considered that “all labor and all achievement spring from man’s envy of his neighbor” (verse 4).
Various observations: chapters 4:7-6:9
Solomon spoke about the futility of selfishness and of the value of friendship (Ecclesiastes 4:8-12). He warned against making hasty vows (Ecclesiastes 5:1-7). He told how the acquisition of money and material goods does not bring lasting satisfaction (verses 10-17). Then he repeated that there was still nothing better than to busy oneself with work and enjoyment, for then one would not think on the brevity of one’s life (verses 18-20).
God gave Solomon riches, wealth and honor, but Solomon was still frustrated: “God gives a man wealth, possessions and honor, so that he lacks nothing his heart desires, but God does not enable him to enjoy them, and a stranger enjoys them instead. This is meaningless, a grievous evil” (Ecclesiastes 6:2).
Again, Solomon asked bitterly, “What advantage has a wise man over a fool?” (verse 8). The first half of the book concludes: “This too is meaningless, a chasing after the wind” (verse 9).
Which is better? chapters 6:10-7:14
Now Solomon uses a series of “better than” statements to present his teachings. The first one begins conventionally enough: “A good name is better than fine perfume” (Ecclesiastes 7:1). The Hebrew is just four words long — tobh shem mishemen tobh. The two tobhs (“good”) form an envelope for the other two words. There is also a wordplay onshem (“a name”) and mishemen (“than oil”). The whole construction is ideal for conveying a standard piece of wisdom: A good reputation is of greater value than material goods. But the second half of the verse strikes a different chord entirely:”And the day of death better than the day of birth” (verse 1).
Solomon’s obsession with death continues: “It is better to go to a house of mourning than to go to a house of feasting, for death is the destiny of every man; the living should take this to heart. Sorrow is better than laughter, because a sad face is good for the heart” (verses 2-3).
Even in this depressed state of mind, Solomon was able to continue imparting wisdom: “It is better to heed a wise man’s rebuke than to listen to the song of fools” (verse 5); “The end of a matter is better than its beginning, and patience is better than pride” (verse 8); and “Wisdom is a shelter as money is a shelter, but the advantage of knowledge is this: that wisdom preserves the life of its possessor” (verse 12).
Further reflections: chapters 7:15-11:6
Solomon’s bitterness toward life is also reflected in his own failure to form a satisfactory marital relationship. He says, “I find more bitter than death the woman who is a snare, whose heart is a trap and whose hands are chains” (Ecclesiastes 7:26). Solomon apparently did not have a happy relationship with any one of his 700 wives or 300 concubines.
Solomon did not deny the possibility of others finding happiness in marriage. However, only once in Ecclesiastes does he mention any joys he felt a wife might bring, and even then he qualifies his statement by saying that all such joys are ultimately futile: “Enjoy life with your wife, whom you love, all the days of this meaningless life that God has given you under the sun — all your meaningless days” (Ecclesiastes 9:9).
Nor does Solomon deny that at some point those who fear God will be better off than those who do not (Ecclesiastes 8:12-13). But he still dwells on the certainty of death: “All share a common destiny — the righteous and the wicked, the good and the bad, the clean and the unclean.... This is the evil in everything that happens under the sun: The same destiny overtakes all...they join the dead” (Ecclesiastes 9:2-3).
Therefore, Solomon recommends getting all you can from this life: “For the living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing” (verse 5); and “Whatever your hand finds to do, do it with all your might, for in the grave, where you are going, there is neither working nor planning nor knowledge nor wisdom” (verse 10).
Again, Solomon affirms the value of wisdom but states bitterly that it is disregarded: “‘Wisdom is better than strength.’ But the poor man’s wisdom is despised, and his words are no longer heeded.... Wisdom is better than weapons of war, but one sinner destroys much good” (verses 16, 18).
At times, Solomon lists one proverb after another, with little or no connection between them. However, many of these diverse proverbs have one thing in common — they show the negative effects of certain courses of action. Solomon often illustrates the dire consequences of folly, but he rarely inspires readers with the good consequences of wisdom.
We shall examine one proverb typical of the style found throughout Ecclesiastes: “If clouds are full of water, they pour rain upon the earth. Whether a tree falls to the south or to the north, in the place where it falls, there will it lie. Whoever watches the wind will not plant; whoever looks at the clouds will not reap” (Ecclesiastes 11:3-4).
First, notice the envelope structure — the first and last parts of the proverb concern the clouds, and the middle parts concern the wind uprooting a tree. The proverb shows that natural events are going to occur whatever you do, so there is no excuse to stop working just because you think the weather may turn bad.
What makes this proverb so typical of Ecclesiastes is the mood it conveys. A proverb imparting wisdom is placed in a pessimistic setting — natural disasters occur no matter what you do.
Youth and old age: chapters 11:7-12:8
Toward the end of the book, Solomon repeats his advice to enjoy life while we can, but to remember always how vain and fleeting it is. He says: “However many years a man may live, let him enjoy them all. But let him remember the days of darkness, for they will be many. Everything to come is meaningless” (Ecclesiastes 11:8).
Solomon says to the young man: “Be happy, young man, while you are young, and let your heart give you joy in the days of your youth. Follow the ways of your heart and whatever your eyes see, but know that for all these things God will bring you to judgment.... For youth and vigor are meaningless” (verses 9-10).
Solomon emphasizes this last point with his concluding passage. He first makes the positive statement, “Remember your Creator in the days of your youth” (Ecclesiastes 12:1).
Following this brief instruction is a long metaphorical description of the reason behind it — because you are going to deteriorate, die and decay! This description is bitter, but beautiful in its bitterness:
“Before the sun and the light and the moon and the stars grow dark, and the clouds return after the rain...when the almond tree blossoms and the grasshopper drags himself along...before the silver cord is severed, or the golden bowl is broken; before the pitcher is shattered at the spring, or the wheel broken at the well” (verses 2-7).
The passage as a whole includes metaphors for loss of sight, teeth, hearing and sexual desire, followed by eventual death. Solomon ends his description: “And the dust returns to the ground it came from, and the spirit returns to God who gave it” (verse 7).
Solomon believes he has now shown the utter futility of everything. In Ecclesiastes 12:8, Solomon, the Teacher, concludes with the same words as he began with: “Meaningless! Meaningless!... Everything is meaningless!”
Epilogue: chapter 12:9-14
The last six verses form an epilogue to the book. This passage, which was probably added later, refers to “the Teacher” in the third person. The epilogue draws some conclusions about the book as a whole. It tells us that the Teacher, Solomon, was wise and that the words of the wise are like goads or prods.
In spite of the pessimistic attitude, which we should avoid, there is much wisdom we can learn in Ecclesiastes. The author of the epilogue now reflects on Solomon’s experience and draws a sober conclusion: “Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man” (verse 13).
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The Limits of Wisdom
In this series, we have commented on the tremendous value of wisdom. The wisdom literature, especially Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, gives us many insights into our daily lives. Yet wisdom alone cannot solve all our problems. This is vividly illustrated by the life of Solomon, the wisest man who ever lived.
Solomon was not some thinker who shut himself off from the world. Instead, he used his wisdom to do great works. He says of himself: “I undertook great projects: I built houses for myself and planted vineyards” (Ecclesiastes 2:4).
The reign of Solomon was the height of Israel’s power and glory. However, after Solomon’s son, Rehoboam, ascended to the throne, his lack of wisdom soon resulted in the kingdom of Israel being divided and Solomon’s work being undone.
Perhaps Solomon foresaw this when he said: “I hated all the things I had toiled for under the sun, because I must leave them to the one who comes after me. And who knows whether he will be a wise man or a fool? Yet he will have control over all the work into which I have poured my effort and skill under the sun” (verses 18-19).
Wisdom did not bring Solomon fulfillment in life. He said, “For with much wisdom comes much sorrow; the more knowledge, the more grief” (Ecclesiastes 1:18).
Solomon’s fault lay not in seeking wisdom but in his approach to life. He sought wisdom for himself, trying to find meaning, purpose and fulfillment in his own existence, apart from a higher reality. His focus was self-centered. His wisdom led him to realize the fleeting nature of life. Even though he had much wisdom, he knew he was going to die, just like everyone else: “Like the fool, the wise man too must die!” (Ecclesiastes 2:16).
Solomon also lacked the character to do what he knew was right. He realized the importance of treating others respectfully, but did not always consider the welfare of others. For example, he taxed his people heavily to spend money on his lavish private projects. He also advised others to fear God, yet he turned his own heart away from God.
As a result, Solomon was alone, without any close personal relationships. Apparently, this was true even with his 1,000 wives and concubines (Ecclesiastes 7:28). In the end, God tore the kingdom of Israel away from him (1 Kings 11:11).
Solomon was unwilling to make the sacrifices necessary to live the way of life that brings happiness. In the New Testament, Jesus Christ taught a way of life based on a value higher than wisdom — love. Jesus taught that the two great keys to spiritual well-being are to love God and to love fellow humans. Paul, an early follower of Jesus, wrote, “If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge...but have not love, I am nothing” (1 Corinthians 13:2).
The hope of all who follow Christ is not in this life. No one who is overly concerned with this life can achieve lasting happiness. That was Solomon’s mistake. That is the limit of wisdom, of practical advice regarding this life. Jesus told his followers:
“Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or about your body, what you will wear.... See how the lilies of the field grow. They do not labor or spin. Yet I tell you that not even Solomon in all his splendor was dressed like one of these.... But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well” (Matthew 6:25-33).
Christ’s followers look beyond the concerns of this life, to eternal life and happiness in the kingdom of God (Colossians 3:1-2).
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Exploring the Song of Songs
What’s in a name?
“The song of songs, which is Solomon’s” (KJV) is a translation of the Hebrew name of this book: Shir Hashirim ‘asher Lishelomoh. Most English Bibles title the book “Song of Songs” or “Song of Solomon,” although sometimes it is titled “Canticles.” The latter title derives from the Latin Canticum Canticorum, which means “Song of Songs.”
Outline 
No definitive outline for this book exists. The text does not even identify who speaks which lines. Marvin H. Pope writes, “In proportion to its size, no book of the Bible has received so much attention and certainly none has had so many divergent interpretations imposed upon its every word” (Song of Songs, The Anchor Bible, vol. 7C, p. 89).
Some scholars view the book as a drama, but their opinions diverge considerably as to the number of participants, the number of acts and the plot of the drama. Others regard the book as several poems formed into a unity, but here, too, opinions diverge as to the number of poems and how they fit together.
How to read this book
Traditional Jewish thought considered this book an allegory of the Lord’s relationship to Israel. Similarly, early Christian interpretations saw it as an allegory of Christ’s relationship to the church. Recently, scholars have emphasized a natural reading of the book as celebrating the love between a man and a woman. This love, however, can be viewed as typifying the relationship between God and his people. Roland E. Murphy writes:
“The primary intention of Canticles deals with human sexual love — the experience of it, its delights, and its power. It is an expansion of the wonder perceived in Prov 30:19, ‘the way of a man with a maiden,’ and expressed also in Prov 5:18-19…. It would be extravagant, however, to claim that the literal historical sense exhausts the meaning of Canticles. The history of interpretation in both Jewish and Christian traditions shows that the communities in which the book was received found other levels of meaning” (Wisdom Literature, The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, vol. 13, p. 104).
Learning about God
Although God is not directly mentioned in Song of Songs, we can infer much about him from the book. Behind the couple who exultantly rejoice in each other’s love lies the God who, from the beginning, intended for a man to leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, so that man and woman “become one flesh” (Genesis 2:24).
We usually remember God as the God of righteousness. But God is also the creator of beauty. God wants us to enjoy his creation, to appreciate beauty, to delight in his gifts for us. And one of God’s most beautiful gifts is that of sexual love in marriage.
Other topics
* Sexual love: Song of Songs speaks of the power of sexual love: “Love is as strong as death, its jealousy unyielding as the grave. It burns like blazing fire, like a mighty flame. Many waters cannot quench love; rivers cannot wash it away. If one were to give all the wealth of his house for love, it would be utterly scorned” (8:6-7). And this power strengthens the bond between the couple: “My lover is mine and I am his” (2:16).
But above all, sexual love is a precious and beautiful gift: “Flowers appear on the earth; the season of singing has come, the cooing of doves is heard in our land. The fig tree forms its early fruit; the blossoming vines spread their fragrance. Arise, come, my darling; my beautiful one, come with me” (2:12-13).
What this book means for you
For those who are married, this book has particular, and delightful, meaning: The marriage covenant is not a covenant of unwilling obligation, it is a covenant of unbounded joy. Karl Barth writes, “The Song of Songs is one long description of the rapture, the unquenchable yearning and the restless willingness and readiness, with which both partners in this covenant hasten towards an encounter” (Church Dogmatics, vol. 3, part 1, p. 313). But for all Christians, married or single, Song of Songs illustrates the church’s joyous anticipation of the marriage to the Lamb, Jesus Christ (Revelation 19:7-8).
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Song of Songs: A Lover’s Paradise
The bond of love
One of God’s greatest gifts to humanity is the special bond of love between a husband and wife. From the beginning, God intended for a man to leave his parents “and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh” (Genesis 2:24).
Some of Solomon’s wisest advice concerned the pleasures of marriage: “May your fountain be blessed, and may you rejoice in the wife of your youth. A loving doe, a graceful deer — may her breasts satisfy you always, may you ever be captivated by her love” (Proverbs 5:18-19). The Song of Songs is an exposition of these verses; it exemplifies the way a husband and wife should express their love toward each other.
In the New Testament, the apostle Paul viewed the love between husband and wife as a type of the love between Christ and the church: “Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church…. Husbands ought to love their wives as their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. After all, no one ever hated his own body, but he feeds and cares for it, just as Christ does the church” (Ephesians 5:25, 28-29).
Viewed in this way, the Song of Songs should encourage us by illustrating the great love Christ has for us. Likewise, it should provoke us to express our love toward him — both in our words and in our actions. For the most part, however, our commentary focuses on what a married couple can gain from this book.
Invitation to paradise
Song of Songs is first and foremost lyrical love poetry. It was written in a cultural environment far removed from our own. After all, what Western woman today would feel complimented if you compared her teeth to a flock of shorn sheep (Song of Songs 4:2), her temples to the halves of a pomegranate (4:3) or her hair to a flock of goats (4:1)? Yet within the environment in which Song of Songs is set, these words had positive connotations. They expressed admiration, affection and love.
In the Song of Songs, the lovers try to re-create paradise. The word paradise is derived from the Greek paradeiso, meaning “garden.” This Greek word predominantly occurs in two places in the Septuagint: in Genesis 2–3, describing the Garden of Eden, and in Song of Songs.
Numerous words related to a garden, rarely used in the rest of the Bible, appear in Song of Songs: myrrh, budded, nard, pomegranates and lilies. The setting is the spring: “The winter is past; the rains are over and gone” (2:11), and the book is traditionally read during the Passover season. In this spring setting, the lovers invoke imagery of flora and fauna to transport themselves to paradise.
Even when we cannot understand some of the specific figures of speech used in Song of Songs, we can appreciate the intentions and emotions they convey. This is made clearer by the use of such simple endearments as “darling,” “lovely,” “beautiful,” “handsome” and “charming.” Expressions such as “How beautiful you are, my darling! Oh, how beautiful!” (1:15) anyone can understand.
Using the senses
In the Hebrew, an abundance of alliteration enhances the poetic effect. Words are selected not just because they refer to beautiful things, but because they sound beautiful. Francis Landy writes:
“The Song appeals to the sensual ear as much as to the intellect; the reader may be baffled by the words and still respond to their emotional and physical connotations; in fact the difficulty reinforces this appeal to an uncritical pleasure. The poem has an enchanting quality, whatever the precise meaning of the words, that derives in part from its musical quality, its function as voice; and in part from its imaginative play with the beauty of the world, corresponding to our own reverie on the sensations with which it continually surrounds us” (“The Song of Songs,” in Literary Guide to the Bible, edited by Robert Alter and Frank Kermode, p. 306).
While our ears may be confronted with sensuality from the way the poetry sounds, the sensations dominant in the text itself are sight, smell and taste. Sight is used for conscious admiration, but smell and taste capture the intoxicated moods of the lovers.
When God created the heavens and the earth, plant and animal life and, finally, man and woman, he saw that his creation was very good (Genesis 1:31). Song of Songs is a lesson in using our senses to appreciate the beauty and splendor of God’s creation.
Esteeming your partner
From beginning to end, the lovers sing each other’s praises. The woman shows her esteem for the man: “Like an apple tree among the trees of the forest is my lover among the young men. I delight to sit in his shade, and his fruit is sweet to my taste” (2:3).
To those who ask, “How is your beloved better than others...?”, she boldly proclaims: “My lover is radiant and ruddy, outstanding among ten thousand…. His appearance is like Lebanon, choice as its cedars. His mouth is sweetness itself; he is altogether lovely. This is my lover, this my friend, O daughters of Jerusalem” (5:9-10, 15-16).
Likewise, the man esteems his wife above all else: “Like a lily among thorns is my darling among the maidens” (2:2); and “My dove, my perfect one, is unique” (6:9).
Esteem breeds confidence, and the lovers in Song of Songs have complete confidence in each other. The woman says, “My lover is mine and I am his” (2:16). Again, she says, “I am my lover’s and my lover is mine” (6:3). She knows her husband’s love for her: “I belong to my lover, and his desire is for me” (7:10), and “His left arm is under my head, and his right arm embraces me” (2:6).
Affection and tenderness of love
No matter how great those times are when lovers express their intense passions for each other, it is simple, unadorned affection and tenderness that binds a marriage together. Notice the man’s continuous displays of affection toward his wife: “How beautiful you are, my darling! Oh, how beautiful!” (1:15); “Like a lily among thorns is my darling among the maidens” (2:2); “You have stolen my heart with one glance of your eyes” (4:9); and “You are beautiful, my darling, as Tirzah, lovely as Jerusalem” (6:4).
The woman remembers her husband’s words of affection; they mean a lot to her: “My lover spoke and said to me, ‘Arise, my darling, my beautiful one, and come with me’” (2:10). She returns her husband’s affection: “How handsome you are, my lover! Oh, how charming!” (1:16). Simple words are often the most effective. Clearly, you need not be a great poet to express how much you love your spouse. Nevertheless, as Song of Songs also shows, a little poetic praise can go a long way.
Yearning for each other
Look how the woman yearned for her husband: “All night long on my bed I looked for the one my heart loves; I looked for him but did not find him. I will get up now and go about the city, through its streets and squares; I will search for the one my heart loves. So I looked for him but did not find him” (3:1-2). She then asks the watchmen if they have seen her lover (3:3). Eventually she finds him and holds him fast, not letting him go (3:4).
In each of these four verses, the woman refers to her husband as “the one my heart loves.” In a similar passage, the woman says, “I opened for my lover, but my lover had left; he was gone. My heart sank at his departure (5:6). The woman yearns to be with her husband, to encompass him (see also 1:13). Moments spent away from him are painful for her. Similarly, the man yearns for his wife: “Show me your face, let me hear your voice; for your voice is sweet, and your face is lovely” (2:14).
Like the woman who is not ashamed to search publicly for her husband and proclaim her love for him (3:3; 5:8), Christians also, as the Israel of God, should not feel embarrassed to be known as people who are actively seeking Jesus Christ. We should praise God daily in our prayers, expressing our love and gratitude to him. As the lovers in the Song of Songs are clearly enraptured with each other, so we should be enraptured with God’s love for us. As the apostle John wrote, “We love because [God] first loved us” (1 John 4:19).
The Song of Songs presents an idealized relationship, the way things should be in a marriage and in our relationship with the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. If we are not careful, we can drift away from God. Similarly, husbands and wives can slowly drift apart. The Song of Songs can help rekindle that first love (Revelation 2:4). It can inspire us to improve our marriages and our relationship with God.
The ultimate paradise
As mentioned before, the Song of Songs looks back to the Garden of Eden. But the ultimate paradise awaits all those who follow God. Jesus Christ promised, “To him who overcomes, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God” (Revelation 2:7). The apostle John was given a vision of this paradise:
“Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb down the middle of the great street of the city. On each side of the river stood the tree of life, bearing twelve crops of fruit, yielding its fruit every month. And the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations” (Revelation 22:1-2).
Here, Christ’s faithful servants shall be with him forever: “The throne of God and of the Lamb [Jesus] will be in the city, and his servants will serve him. They will see his face, and his name will be on their foreheads.... And they will reign for ever and ever” (verses 3-5). The Song of Songs, with its imagery of paradise, is a rich metaphor for our glorious ultimate relationship with Jesus.
Song of Songs ends with the woman desiring her husband’s presence, “Come away [“make haste” KJV], my lover” (8:14). Similarly, Revelation ends with the church’s anticipation of Christ’s return: “Amen. Come, Lord Jesus” (Revelation 22:20).
Song to the Shulammite
Song of Songs celebrates the intimate relationship between a husband and wife. Both lovers praise each other’s body in an unashamedly frank manner. In one delightful passage, the man expresses his appreciation of the Shulammite woman by describing her features in poetic ascent from her feet to her head (7:1-9). The Shulammite may be dancing before him as he praises her (6:13).
“How beautiful your sandaled feet, O prince’s daughter! Your graceful legs are like jewels, the work of a craftsman’s hands” (7:1).
The man considers his wife a prince’s daughter. The intensifying phrase “the work of a craftsman’s hands” refers initially to the jewels, but also applies to the Shulammite’s God-given graceful legs or thighs.
“Your navel is a rounded goblet that never lacks blended wine. Your waist is a mound of wheat encircled by lilies. Your breasts are like two fawns, twins of a gazelle” (7:2-3).
Again, the intensifying phrases refer primarily to the metaphors (“goblet,” “mound of wheat,” “two fawns”). But they also, by analogy, apply to the body parts those metaphors represent. Euphemistic expressions disguise some of the eroticism in Song of Songs, but even at its most erotic and intimate, the poetic description is highly dignified. The poem throughout elevates, uplifts and inspires. This is a man’s personal eulogy to his wife’s beauty.
“Your neck is like an ivory tower. Your eyes are the pools of Heshbon by the gate of Bath Rabbim. Your nose is like the tower of Lebanon looking toward Damascus. Your head crowns you like Mount Carmel. Your hair is like royal tapestry; the king is held captive by its tresses” (7:4-5).
The lover moves from describing the more intimate areas of the Shulammite’s body, seen by him alone, to praising the neck, face and hair generally visible to everyone. This is why his similes concern well-known landscapes and admired architecture such as the pools of Heshbon and the tower of Lebanon. The royal image at the beginning of the poem recurs here. The crowning attribute of this prince’s daughter could hold a king captive.
“How beautiful you are and how pleasing, O love, with your delights! Your stature is like that of the palm, and your breasts like clusters of fruit” (7:6-7).
As the lover now beholds his wife in her entirety, he expresses further admiration: “I said, ‘I will climb the palm tree; I will take hold of its fruit.’ May your breasts be like the clusters of the vine, the fragrance of your breath like apples, and your mouth like the best wine” (7:8-9).
Now that his eyes have been satisfied with the sight of his wife, the husband engages the other senses as he kisses and caresses her. His beloved is a fair and pleasant delight indeed!

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About the Authors
Tim Finlay and Jim Herst were writers working for Grace Communion International. Most of these materials were written in the mid 1990s. We edited the articles again in 2013 for this e-book. Jim and Tim also wrote the volumes on the Books of Moses and the Historical Books for this series on Exploring the Word of God.
Tim Finlay went on to earn a PhD in Old Testament studies at Claremont Graduate School. He now teaches at Azusa Pacific University and Grace Communion Seminary. He is the author of The Birth Report Genre in the Hebrew Bible, published by J.C.B. Mohr in 2005.
The chapter on Job was written by Paul Kroll; the chapter on prayer by John Halford. Both have written other volumes in this series. The editor was Michael Morrison, PhD, Dean of Faculty at Grace Communion Seminary.
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George Hunsinger, Princeton Theological Seminary
C. Baxter Kruger, Perichoresis 
Jeff McSwain, Reality Ministries 
Paul Louis Metzger, Multnomah University
Paul Molnar, St. John’s University
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Alan Torrance, University of St. Andrews
Robert T. Walker, Edinburgh University
William P. Young, author of The Shack
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About the publisher…
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Grace Communion Seminary serves the needs of pastors and others engaged in Christian service who want to grow deeper in relationship with our Triune God and to be able to more effectively serve in the Incarnational life of the church.
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